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What is the central dogma of DNA?
DNA replication -> DNA transcription -> RNA translation -> Protiens. INformation flows from DBA to Protiens
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What is the flow of genetic information?
DNA -> Transcription (RNA Synthesis) -> Messenger RNA -> Translation (protein synthesis) -> Protein
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These are the subunits of the nucleic acids.
Nucleotides
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Nucleotides are made up of?
A Phosphate, base, and sugar.
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What are the purines?
Adenine and Guanine
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What are the Pyrimidines?
Cystosine, Thymine, and Uracil.
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Know what the pyrmidine and purine look like.
Okay
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What are the base pairings.
A-T C-G in DNA and A-U C-G in RNA
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What kind of bond bonds nucleotides together?
Hydrogen bonds
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How many hydrogen bonds are between A-T?
2
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How many hydrogen bonds are betweem C-G?
3
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What is the backbone of the DNA strand?
A sugar phosphate. round part the phosphate and the rectagled is the sugar.
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Histones fold up the DNA into
chomatin.
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When the gene is off it looks?
tightly wound up
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When the gene is on it looks?
Looped. a wide open loop ready for binding.
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How does the DNA fold up?
DNA goes into beads on a string forming chromatin -> chromatin fibers pack together -> Chromatin fibers folded in to loops-> then packed into chromosome
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A nucleotide is?
N-containing base, a 5 carbon sugar and one or more phosphate groups.
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DNA breaks apart creating a replication fork, what are the two strands?
A leading strand and a lagging strand.
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What are the proteins that are involved with the unraveling of DNA?
Helicase, Single Stranded Biding Proteins, Topoisomers, Gyrase, RNA Primase, and DNA Polymerase.
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What does Helicase do?
Its and enzyme that breaks the hydrogen bonds between the DNA.
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What does Single Stranded Binding proteins do?
Holds the DNA open after it has been split.
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What does the topoisomers do?
They help keep the DNA strand from kinking up while its being unravled.
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What does the Gyrase do?
This unravels the DNA strand
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What does the RNA Primase do?
This creats a strating point on the DNA template for DNA Polymerase to attach to.
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What does DNA POlymerase do?
This creates the new DNA starnd. Builds the new DNA structure.
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What are the DNA fragments called on the Lagging strand?
Okazaki fragments.
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New Nucleic acids are added by dNTPs to teh 3'OH end
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What proof reads the lagging strand and kicks out the RNA primers off?
DNA Polymerase I
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What does DNA Ligase go?
This binds DNA together. Such as the segements in the lagging strand.
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How fast is replication?
Polymerase can add 100 nucleotides per second.
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How many nucleotides are there in a human?
3.2X10^9
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How often do mutations occur?
1 in every 10^7
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Why dont we see these errors?
Silent mutations, Some corrected, repaired by enzymes.
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What does DNA polymerase I do?
DNA repair and removing primers (Prokaryotic) It has exonuclease properties
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What does Polymerase II do?
DNA proof-reading and repair (Prokaryotic)
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What dies DNA polymerase III do?
replication elongation.
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What cuts the DNA after Gyrase has uynraveled?
An Endonuclease.
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What are tthe characteristics of living things?
Movement, growth and development, responce to stimuli, reproduction, use of energy, and cellular structure.
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What are the universal features of the cell?
Contain hereditary information, transfer of genetic material, contain protien manufactureing, require energy, have enclosed membranse.
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What does prokaryote mean?
Before nucleus (bacteria)
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What does Eukaryote mean?
Ture nucleus (animal and plant cells)
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Origins of eukaryotes?
an Ameba tae a bacteria. Bacteria became the mitchondria. For plants it may have been a photosynthetic bacteria.
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How many bonds does a carbon have?
4 covalent bonds
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What are the three types of bonds?
Hydrogen bond, ionic bonds, and covalent bonds
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Name some monomers (in order)?
Sugars, fatty acids, amino acids, and nucleotides.
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Name some polymers (macromolecules in order)
Polysaccharides, fats/lipids/membranes, proteins, and nucleic acids.
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Sugars are brought together with what kind of reaction? (water is removed)
Condensation reaction
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Sugars are seperated by what kind of reaction?(water is added)
Hydrolysis
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Simple sugars with multiple OH groups. Based on number of carbons they are named/
Monosaccharides
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2 monosaccharides covalently linked
Disaccharide
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A few (3-15) monosaccharides covalently linked.
Oligosaccharides
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Polymers consisting of long chains of monosaccharide or disaccharide units.
Polysaccharides
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These monosaccharides have an aldehyde group at one end
Aldoses.
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These monosaccharides have a keto group usually at the C2/
Ketoses
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Name some unbranched polymers of glucose?
Amylose and cellulose (both plants)
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Name some branched polymers of glucose?
Glycogen ( animals) and Amylopectin (plants)
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A staight fatty acid is called
saturated
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A bent fatty acid is called?
Unsaturated
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Contain a polar region and a non-polar region.
Phospholipids
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What is a common Phospholipid?
Phosphotidylethanolamine (PE)
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Know the structures of the lipids.
put pictures in.
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These have a rigid ring system, largely hydrophobic, part on an animal cell membrane and precursor for the synthesis of steroid hormones.
Cholesterol
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N-containg base and a 5-carbon sugar.
Nucleoside
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N-containg base, a 5- carbon sugar and one ormore phosphate groups.
Nucleotide
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Know the baic model of an amino acid
okay
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What are the parts of the amino acid?
Has an amino group, carbon atom, a carboxyl group, and R side-chain group.
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What bonds the two amino acids together?
Peptide bonds
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How are proteins grouped?
Acidic, basic, uncharged polar, and nonpolar/
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How many amino acids are there?
20
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Name the structures of the protein?
Primary structure, secondary structure, terciary structure, and qurterary structure.
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Primary structure is?
The amino acid sequence. Polypeptide back bone.
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What dictates the shape?
Amino acid sequence
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Secondary structure?
Alpha helix, coiled, and Beta pleated sheets,
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How can pleated sheets be arranged?
Antiparallel and parallel
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Tertiary structure?
Interactions between R-groups. folded up m=and turned into domains.
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Quarterary structure?
grouped into its main structure. Can by by themselves or grouped together.
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How do proteins function?
They function by interacting with other molecules.
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Catalyzes a specific reaction.
Enzyme
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Recognizes specific signal/
receptor
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this is the structure made of protein.
Cytoskeleton
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Allows specific molecules to cross membrane.
Membrane transporters
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These bind to the receptors
Signals
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Bind to a specific bacteria or virus
Antibodies
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Bind to specific receptors or enzymes to block action
Toxins
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Bind to specific receptors
Hormones
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This kind of enzyme inhibition plugs the receptor.
Competitive
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This kind of inhibition plug a diffent receptor and causes the min receptor to change shape
non-competitive inhibition
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On the michaelis-Menen kinetics graph what is happening when Vmax stays the same and Km changes?
Competitive inhibition
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On the Michaelis-Mene kinetics graph what is happening when Vmax decreases and Km remains the same?
Non-competitive inhibition
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What is allosteric regulation?
There is a secondary receptor site (alloteric site) that will uptake a signal. this will then activate or inhibit the active site.
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What do mRNAs do?
they code for proteins
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These form the basic structure of the ribosome and catalyze protein synthesis.
rRNAs
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Central to protein synthesis as adaptors between mRNA amd amino acids
tRNAs
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Function is a variety of nuclear processes including the splicing of pre-mRNA
snRNAs
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Eukaryotic genes have what two kinds of coding regions?
Exons and Introns
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mRNA processing.
5' cap, 3'poly-A tail and Splicing.
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RNA polymerase makes how many errors?
1 out of 10^5 base additions.
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is there an error correction for RNA errors?
No
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what is the path to creating a protein in a eukaryote?
DNA->Transcription -> tRNA -> caping, tail, splicing (removal of introns)->mRNA export->Translation-> protein.
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What is the path to creating a protein in a prokaryote?
DNA->transcription->mRNA->translation->protein
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What are the components of Ribosomes?
Large subunit and small subunit.
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What is the Ribosome made of?
~82 protein + 4RNA molecules.
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THe large subunit is made of?
Lots of proteins and 3 RNA molecules
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the small subunit is made of?
fewer proteins and 1 RNA molecule
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What do transfer RNAs do?
They bring in amino acids into ribosomes
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