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_____— pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through life span
Development
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–Maximum human life span relatively unchanged (how many years?)
122
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_______ — average number of years a person is expected to live when born in a particular year has changed
Life expectancy
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______ — number of years elapsed since person’s birth
Chronological age
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______ — in terms of biological health
Biological age
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______ — one’s adaptive capacities (age)
Psychological age
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_____ — social roles and expectations related to one’s age
Social age
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_____— interrelated set of ideas that helps to explain data, make predictions
Theory
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_____— assertions or predictions, often derived from theories that can be tested
Hypotheses
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Best theories meet scientific criteria for a theory:
- Comprehensive
- Parsimonious
- Testable
- Productive – leads to new ideas & research
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Describe psychoanalytic theory
- Development is primarily unconscious, heavy with emotion
- Behavior is surface characteristic of development
- Analyze symbolic meanings of behavior and deep inner workings of the mind for true meaning of development
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Describe Freud's theory
- Id, ego, and superego create personality
- Defense mechanisms and repression
- Anxiety and defense mechanisms
- Five stages of psychosexual development
- Criticisms: overemphasized sexual instincts, unconscious is more important today
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Freud's stages
- Oral
- Anal
- Phalic
- Latency
- Gential
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Erickson's pyschosocial theory stages
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Cognitive Theories
Emphasize conscious thoughts
Three major theories?
- Piaget’s cognitive development
- Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory
- Information processing theory
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Emphasis on biology and evolution, sensitive periods of development, and careful observations (theory)?
Ethological Theory
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Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory stages
- Sensorimotor
- Preoperaional
- Concrete operational
- Formal operational
Child’s cognition is “qualitatively” different
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Vygotsky's sociocultural cognitive theory
- Children actively construct their knowledge
- Culture and social interaction guide cognitive development
- Learning to use inventions of society
- Learning from social interactions with more skilled adults and peers
- Interaction creates tools to adapt to cult
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Information-Processing theory
____: important to development
Good strategies
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____ — scientific studies can only be based on direct observations and measures
Behaviorism
- Learned from experiences/environment
- Development does not occur in stages; advocates continuity
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_____ theory
Behavior, environment, and cognition are key to development
Behavior is learned through observation and imitating (modeling)
Behavior of others is cognitively evaluated, strategies created for successful learning
Bandura’s social cognitive
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____ research - research method that examines the relationships among two or more variables, does not imply cause and effect
Prediction based on strength of relationship
Correlation coefficient (+1.00 to -1.00)
Correlational
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____ Observation
In the “field” or natural environment where behavior happens
Naturalistic
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_____ Observations
Laboratory situation set up to evoke behavior of interest
All participants have equal chance to display behavior
Structured
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____ Interview
Flexible, conversational style
Probes for participant’s point of view
Clinical
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_____ Interview
Each participant is asked same questions in same way
May use questionnaires, get answers from groups
Structured
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Methods for Collecting Data
- -Standardized test
- -Case study
- --Focus on aspects of individual’s life – Eve White, Phineas Gage
- --Unique, cannot be duplicated
- -Physiological measures
- --Blood tests, MRI, GSR, stress hormones
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Experimental Design
Methods for Collecting Data?
- Causality and effect
- Dependent (Y) and independent (X) variables
- Control and experimental groups
- Random assignment of subjects
- Manipulation of independent (X) variable
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___ Experiments
Use rare opportunities for random assignment in natural settings
Feild
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____ Experiments
Compare differences in treatment that already exist
Groups chosen to match characteristics as much as possible
Natural
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Time-Lag Research
____: Same participants studied repeatedly at different ages
Longitudinal
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Time-Lag Research
Participants of differing ages all studied at the same time.
Cross-sectional
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Time-Lag Research
Several similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studies are conducted at varying times.
Sequential
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Time-Lag Research
Participants are presented with a novel task and their mastery is followed over a series of sessions.
Microgenetic
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Conducting Ethical Research
APA guidelines address
Informed consent, confidentiality, protection from harm
Debriefing, deception
Minimizing bias (gender, culture, ethnicity)
Ethnic gloss — overgeneralizing about ethnic group(s)
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____: 2 copies of chromosome 21
Down syndrome
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Sex-linked abnormalities
___ syndrome: XXY instead of XY
____ syndrome: X in boys is fragile, breaks
____ syndrome: girl is XO instead of XX
____ syndrome: link to criminal males unprove
Klinefelter
Fragile X
Turner
XYY
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Chemical marker that activates either father’s or mother’s gene
Often temporary
Imprinting
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Sudden, permanent change in a DNA segment
Mutation
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Gene-linked abnormalities
____ – treated by diet
____– red blood cells affected
nCystic fibrosis, diabetes, hemophilia, spina bifida, Tay-sachs and Huntington diseases
nCan sometimes be compensated for by other genes or events
phenylketonuria (PKU)
Sickle-cell anemia
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Heredity-environment correlations
Parents provide/guide child’s interests
Passive genotype-environment
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____ genotype-environment
nSome traits elicit more adult responses
Evocative
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Heredity-environment correlations
Child seeks/selects favorable environments
Active (niche-picking) genotype-environment
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Prenatal Development stages
- Germinal: creation of fertilized egg, implantation
- Embryonic: cell differentiation of embryo
- Fetal period: lasts for 7 months, 3 trimesters
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Teratogens
Severity of damage affected by
- Dose
- Genetic susceptibility
- Time of exposure
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Any agent or agents that can cause birth defects
Teratogens
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Stages of birth
Labor occurs in three stages
- Uterine contractions
- Baby’s head begins to enter birth canal
- Afterbirth (shortest stage)
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_____– from top (head) and gradual to bottom
Cephalocaudal pattern
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_____ – center of body outward to extremities
Proximodistal pattern
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Period of rapid physical and hormonal chang
Puberty
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Physical changes; growth spurt
úGirls – _____, hips widen, body hair
Onset for most: 9 to 15 years of age
úBoys – first ejaculation, grow taller, body hair
Onset for most: 10 to 17 years of age
menarche
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____— fertility declines
____— menstrual periods ceases
Dramatic decline of estrogen; a negative experience for most women
Climacteric
Menopause
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–____ — specialization of functions in one hemisphere of cerebral cortex
Lateralization
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Infancy – sleep/wake cycle
Newborns average 16-17 hours a day
Varied patterns; longest period is 11 pm to 7 am
At 1 month – infants sleep more
At 6 mos – closer to adult-like sleep patterns
Most common problem – night waking
Culture affects sleep patterns
More REM sleep than any other time of life
Shared sleeping with parents is controversial
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Adulthood and aging
Many are sleep deprived (less than 7 hrs a day)
Work, school, social, or family obligations
Many adults don’t get enough sleep
Middle age may bring sleep problems
Wakeful periods at night, less deep sleep
Many older adults go to bed and wake up earlier,
Insomnia increases in late adulthood
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____ memory
Retains information up to 15 to 30 seconds without rehearsal (span is very limited
Short-term
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___memory
Kind of mental workbench for manipulating and assembling information
More active, powerful than short-term memory
Working
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Remembering to do something in the future
Age-related; declines depend on task
Time-based tasks decline more
Event-based tasks show less decline
nProspective memory
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___memory: routine skills and procedures performed automatically (unconscious memory)
Implicit
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____memory: one’s knowledge about world including field of expertise
Semantic
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Explicit: conscious/declarative memory
-
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___ memory: retention of information about the where and when of events
Episodic
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Working memory and processing speed
Linked to aging, reading and math achievement
Performance peaks at 45; declines at age 57
Decline affects both new and old information
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Engaging in more extensive processing of information; use of examples, self-referencing
Elaboration
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Strategies used to improve
- Rehearsal: repetition better for short-term
- Organizing: making information relevant
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