-
Gestures
Speaking
Spontaneous mvmts of fingers, hands, & arms - Often accompanies our speech
- Can sometimes help you remember the word you want to produce
- When we produce a word we execute elaborate mvmts of the mouth & other parts of vocal system
- May sometimes activate relevant info
-
Gist
Producing a sentence
Mentally plan this - Overall meaning of the message we intend to generate
- Top-down
-
Linearization problem
Producing a sentence
Prob of transforming general thought/mental image & arranging words in an ordered, linear sequence - Usu speak rapidly & accurately but occasionaly find yourself struggling trying to describe several ideas simultaneously
- While planning a writing assignment you resolve this
-
Prosody
Producing a Sentence
The "melody" of an utterance's intonation, rhythm, & emphasis - Must plan this during speech production
- Can be used to clarify an ambiguous message
- May reflect diff features of speaker/utterance: emotional state; whether it's a ?, statement, or command; sarcasm
-
Slips-of-the-tongue
Speech errors
Errors in which sounds/entire words are rearranged btwn 2/more diff words - Helpful b/c they reveal ppl's extensive knowledge abt the sounds, structure, & meaning of the lang they're speaking
- 3 kinds: sound errors, morpheme errors, & word errors
- Several forms: anticipation error, preservation error, & deletions
- Occur more often when stimulus includes 2 consonants
- Likely to create a word vs. a nonword
- Seldom create a word that begins w/an unlikely letter sequence
- Usu the errors occur across items from same category
- Shows words we're currently pronouncing influenced by words we've already spoken & words we're planning to speak
-
Narrative
Producing discourse
Type of discourse in which someone describes a series of actual/fictional events conveyed in a time-related sequence & often emotionally involving - Storytellers have a specific goal that must be conveyed but don't completely preplan the org at beginning of story
- Choose words carefully to present their own actions in a favorable light & try to make it more entertaining
- Format is unusual--allows speaker to "hold the floor" for extended period in which speaker usu conveys 6 parts of narrative which tend to make it cohesive & well org'd
- Time-related sequence; emotionally involving; goal to convey; words chosen carefully; entertaining
- Structure: overview, summary of characters & setting; complicating action; point; resolution; final signal of completion
-
Common ground
Social context of speech
When conversationalists share similar background knowledge, schemas, & experiences necessary for mutual understanding - Important part of pragmatics
- To guarantee convo coherence speakers need to collaborate to make certain they share common ground w/their convo partners
- Speakers should: make sure their listeners are paying attention, avoid ambiguous statements, clarify misunderstandings
- Use NV lang to clarify message
- Convo partners become more skilled in comm'ing efficiently w/practice Lexical entrainment
- Probs: speakers overestimate listeners' ability to understand message; speakers assume listeners need & want same things they do; time pressure
-
Lexical entrainment
Common ground
Pattern 2 comm'ers use when they create & adopt a standard term to refer to an obj - Ppl who work together can quickly & efficiently dvlp this [doctor-patient convos]
- Fairly natural kind of pragmatic skill (shown in study of ppl w/diff lang's)
- Speakers freq work collaboratively to agree on names they'll use in a convo
-
Directive
Social context of speech
- Important topic of pragmatics
- A sentence that requests someone to do something
- The most polite require more words
- Speakers often state them in a format that anticipates potential obstacles to compliance
- Overly elaborate directives may seem insulting
- Indirect request
-
Indirect request
Directives
Stated like a request for info, even tho it's really a request for someone to do soemthing/stop doing something - [Teacher: "What are you laughing at?"]
-
Self-efficacy
Cognitive model of writing
Your own assessment of your capabilities in an area - Motivational factor of writing
-
Working memory
- The brief immediate memory for material we're currently processing
- Our previous knowledge can help us chunk items together to aid this memory
- Listeners rely on it more than readers (can re-scan the info)
- Plays important role during reading: large working memory helps quickly process ambiguous sentences, read difficult passages, solve complex verbal probs, understand complicated sentences
- Plays central role in cog approach to writing
- Coordinates our ongoing mental activities
- Phonological loop, Visuospatial sketchpad, central executive
- Rehearsal: useful for maintaining items here
- Decline in this the older you get
- Stereotype threat: interferes w/this--esp on difficult tasks it reduces its capacity; thought suppression also reduces this
- Neg info: strains thiss if prob involves denying the antecedent/consequent
-
Phonological loop
Cognitive model of writing
Stores limited # of sounds for short period of time in working memory - Ppl talk to themseleves as they generate sentences during writing which requires PL
-
Visuospatial sketchpad
Cognitive model of writing
Stores both visual & spatial info in working memory - Useful when writers try to visualize the order of the sections of a paper & need to include figures & graphs
-
Central executive
Cognitive model of writing
Part of working memory that integrates info from PL, VS, & episodic buffer - Plays role in attention, planning, & coordinating other cog activities
- Active in virtually every phase of writing process
- Its limited capacity makes writing esp challenging
-
Prewriting
Planning the writing assignment
Generate a list of ideas - 1st stage in planning to write
- Difficult & strategic--much diff from many relatively auto lang tasks
- Ppl differ in quality of ideas they generate during this phase: good writers spend more high quality time planning during this phase
-
Bilingual
- Person who actively uses 2 diff langs
- Multilingual
- Simultaneous bilingualism
- Sequential bilingualism
- Interlanguage
- More than 1/2 ppl in world are at least somewhat bilingual
- 2 predictors of success of learning 2nd lang: motivation & attitude toward the ppl
- Advantages: more advanced in school (greater mental flexibility); they can comm in 2 langs; more expertise in 1st lang; more aware names assigned to concepts are arbitrary; selective attention to subtle aspects of a lang task; better at following complicated & changing instructions; creative; pragmatic aspects
- Disadvantages: (minor) pronunciation; slower processing
- Experience tip of the tongue effect more freq than monolinguals--greater total # of separate words in semantic memory
-
Multilingual
Bilingualism
Someone who uses more than 2 langs - Included in bilingual category
-
Simultaneous bilingualism
Bilingualism
Learn 2 langs simultaneously during childhood
-
Sequential bilingualism
Bilingualism
Person's native lang = 1st lang & nonnative lang they acquire = 2nd lang
-
Interlanguage
Bilingualism
New lang system that allows ppl to produce concepts, sentences, & discourse in the 2nd lang Ppl don't learn a 2nd lang by simply imitating the new lang
-
Metalinguistics
Bilingualism
Knowledge abt the form & structure of lang - 1 advantage bilinguals have over monolinguals--they're more aware the names assigned to concepts are arbitrary
-
Age of acquisition
Bilingualism
Age at which you begin to learn a 2nd lang - Critical period hypothesis
- General issue: do older ppl have more difficulty than younger in mastering a 2nd lang?--varies
- Influences mastery of phonology: ppl who acquire 2nd lang earlier more likely to produce words like a native speaker
- Doesn't seem to be related to lang skills when measuring vocab
- Strongest controversy = grammar (experience in US schools & formal ed)--affects knowledge of grammar if the 2 langs are very diff from each other & speaker hasn't been educated in English
-
Critical period hypothesis
Age of acquisition
Your ability to acquire a 2nd lang is strictly limited to a specific period of your life - Proposes indiv's who've already reached a specific age (early puberty) will no longer be able to acquire a new lang w/native-like fluency
- Research evidence doesn't support a clear-cut biologically based "deadline"
- Many studies report a gradual decline in 2nd lang skills as a function of age of acquisition, but none show an abrupt drop at a certain age
-
Phonology
Age of acquisition
Sounds of a person's speech - Research suggests age of acquisition does influence the mastery of this
- Ppl who acquire a 2nd lang during early childhood more likely to pronounce words like a native speaker of that lang vs. ppl who acquire it during adulthood more likely to have a foreign accent w/new lang
- Fairly smooth decline w/age of acquisition (vs. abrupt drop)
-
Translation
Simultaneous interpreters
Process of translating from a text written in 1 lang into a 2nd written lang - VS. interpreting
-
Interpreting
Simultaneous interpreters
Process of translating from a spoken message in 1 lang to spoken lang into a 2nd spoken lang - 1 of most challenging linguistic tasks humans can perform--3 working memory tasks at same time
|
|
