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What blurs the boundary between the distinct forms of speech and writing?
Technology such as speak to type
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What are the differences between writing and speech shown in?
A continua
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Are the most common words in speech the same as the most common words in written language?
- No, for example 'the' is used far more in spoken language than it is in written language
- These types of communication have very different purposes and time constraints meaning the language will be different. Speech is less formulated than written language
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What are the differences between written and spoken language? (7 things)
- Writing is permanent, speech is transitory
- There is a time lag between production and reception of written language, spoken language is spontaneous (usually)
- Written language is context independent and speech is context dependant
- There is low interaction in written language and high interaction in spoken language (backchanneling, discourse markers, turn-taking etc)
- Written language can be revised/changed, whereas speech cannot be withdrawn
- Written language uses visual devices and spoken language uses rhythm or volume etc
- Written language has high levels of lexical density and speech has low
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What is hypotaxis?
The subordination of one clause to another
Found in written language
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What is parataxis?
The placing of clauses or phrases one after the other
Found in spoken language
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Under what conditions does spoken language change?
- Audience - above or below age/rank
- Purpose - for task oriented speech or not
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What is mimesis?
Imitating the real world in speech or thought
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What is diegesis?
The telling/narration of a plot
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What are the three types of diegesis?
- Extradiegetic
- Intradiegetic
- Hypodiegetic
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What is extradiegetic narration?
A type of diegesis that is told from a narrator outside of the story
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What is intradiegetic narration?
A type of diegesis where the narrator is within the story
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What is hypodiegetic narration?
A story told within a story within a story
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What is eye dialect?
- Non-standard spelling to refelct an accent or show a social class
- Links to symbolism (onomatopoeia)
- May effect syntax (Poirot is an example of this)
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What are the three types of speech in writing?
- Direct speech
- Indirect speech
- Free indirect speech
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What are the characteristics of direct speech in writing?
- Authentic, verbatim representation of speech
- Usually identifiable by speech marks
"This is what I feared!" Said Morrell
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What are the characteristics of indirect speech in writing?
- Remaining remote from voice
- Controlled by the narrator
Morrell said that is what he feared
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What are the characteristics of free indirect speech in writing?
- Removes the reporting clause
- May use features of direct or indirect speech
Morrell said he feared this.
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What are the three ways thought can be presented in writing?
- Direct thought
- Indirect thought
- Free indirect thought
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Give an example of how direct thought would be presented in writing
"Am I pale?" he wondered.
(speech marks)
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Give an example of how indirect thought would be presented in writing
He wondered if he would survive.
Speech integrated into the text
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What are the characteristics of free indirect thought?
- Keeps narrator between the character and the reader
- Greater sense of immediacy, stream of consciousness
e.g. Virginia Woolf in Mrs Dalloway
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What is the essence of mimesis?
Authenticity
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What are two features of writing in literature that aim to make text seem authentic?
- Eye dialect
- Stream of consciousness
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Give an example of how free indirect thought would be presented in writing
She had consented to go away, to leave her home. Was that wise?
Tense and pronoun selection tend to be those of the narrator
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What are Grice's four maxims in his Cooperative Principle?
- Quantity
- Quality
- Manner
- Relevance
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What is Grice's 'quantity' maxim?
To say neither more nor less than the discourse required
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What is Grice's 'quality' maxim?
Do not lie or make unsupported claims in discourse
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What is Grice's 'manner' maxim?
Be brief and orderly, avoid ambiguity and obscurity
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What is Grice's 'relevance' maxim?
To be relevant in discourse
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How could someone violate Grice's cooperative principle?
By not upholding the maxims that he outlines. Doing so will negatively impact how we communicate with each other
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What is flouting?
Avoiding being cooperative
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What is a violation?
Intentional breaking of maxim/rule, perhaps for harm
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What is infringement?
- Breaking the terms of law.
- Less serious than violation as it is unlikely to be intentional.
- May be related to the nature of a character
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What are modern stylisticians interested in, in terms of speech and thought?
How speech and thought are portrayed in genres beyond those typically classes as literary
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What is 'narrative report' in writing?
- The most prevalent indirect speech.
- It is when the narrator reports speech or thought has taken place but gives no indication of the actual words used.
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Who coined the term 'stream of consciousness'?
William James (psychologist)
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What are the two techniques for representing consciousness in fiction?
- 1. Interior monologue. The subject is an ‘I’ and we overhear the character verbalising their thoughts as they occur.
- 2. Free indirect style.
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