Week 1 + 2 (intro+history)

• The study of words, how they are formed, and their relationship to other words in the same language.
• It analyzes the structure of words and parts of words, such as stems, root words, prefixes, and suffixes.

The study of the sound system of languages.

A particular mode of expression, especially one characteristic of a particular speaker or subject area.

• The way in which words and sentences are used in everyday situations.
• The meaning of language in context

• Changing the spelling of words by using the conventions of orthography to mimic dialect 
• eg. what = wot

The conventional spelling of language

• A method of textual interpretation in which primacy of place is assigned to language 
• Linguistic features do not themselves constitute a text's meaning... it serves to ground a stylistic interpretation and explain why certain types of meaning are possible

• Rigorous - being explicit in analysis 
• Retrievable - using agreed terms and criteria 
• Replicable - providing enough info so that others can verify the analysis

A technique for directing your audience to focussing on certain features. 

• An aspect of the test which deviates from the linguistic norm (changing the way text appears or is written) 
• An aspect of the text which is brought to the fore through repetition or parallelism

• We expect nouns to have adjectives and when they repeatedly do not this is foregrounded because it deviates from our expectations.
• This is from Hemingway's The Old Man. 

A deviation within a deviation in a text. 

eg. Hemingway suddenly using loads of adjectives

• Referential function 
• Emotive function 
• Conative function
• Phatic function 
• Metalingual function
• Poetic function

where language is orientated towards the context

The language is orientated towards the addresser

Language orientated towards the addressee

Language that establishes, prolongs or discontinues communication

• 'You alright?'
• 'Yeah, you alright?'
• ^ this acts as being social not real communication

Establishes mutual agreement on the code 

(trying to establish agreement)

Focus is on the message for its own sake 

(language choices for aesthetic effect)

• No but there is a literariness of language (Jakobson) 
• The claim that there is a literary language is a term that attempts to exclude stylistitians from appreciating literature

Journalism, conversation, song writing, advertising

To explore the creativity in language and how it is used

• Phonology
• Graphology 
• Morphology
• Syntax
• Lexical analysis 
• Semantics
• Discourse analysis

Yes they are interconnected and depend on one another

• Sentence
• Clause 
• Phrase
• Word
• Morpheme

• A Russian/American linguist.
• He proposed the theory of foregrounding and put forward his functions of language

For literary-aesthetic purposes

it works on any level of language and is designed to draw attention to itself

Using terms such as 'passing away' for death

Adjectives can be graded on by modifying the degree of intensity of the quality. An adjective is only gradable if 'very' makes sense in front of it. Gradable adjectives are able to compare things

eg. 'bright light' becomes 'very bright light'

An adjective that doesn't make sense if 'very' is put in front of it. 

eg. the adjective 'former' can't be 'very former' making it a classifying adjective

Adjectives describe qualities and adverbs describe circumstances

Saying the same thing twice.

• 1960s
• about the usefulness of stylistics as an academic activity. 
• stylistics vs. traditional literary analysis

• A Swiss linguist dubbed the 'father of modern linguistics'.
• he developed structural linguistics (langue, parole)

• A critic called Vender reviewed Fowler's work unfavourably.
• Then Fowler defended his work.
• Then Bateson disagreed with Fowler.
• Then Fowler responded to Bateson. 
• Finally, Bateson responded to Fowler.

'Essays on Style and Language' (1966)

• Linguistics is useful but not beyond an 'elementary level' and that Fowler's idea that the study of language is necessary to the study of literature is 'simply not true'
• Literary and non-literary language cannot overlap

Fowler stated her comments were too 'general' and she was too 'hostile' and that she should not disregard linguistics because it is a developing school

Fowler said that Bateson's attempt to remove linguistics as a discipline of relevance to literature was 'cunning' and that he was 'motivated by a set of prejudices'

• Bateson said that Fowles is unable to provide examples of when linguistic analysis would be useful 
• Bateson said that there should be no language problems for an English reader that the context of the passage will not solve

To investigate literary style and to look for its origins in all forms of discourse

• A schema is a cognitive framework or concept that helps organise and interpret information. It varies from person to person (mental images) 
• Certain types of language are used in different situations and helps us to predict what is likely to happen

It alters people's schema making some pieces 'schema changing' and other pieces 'schema reinforcing'

A method of categorising literary texts into distinct groups suggested by Rosch in 1975

Categories are formed through experience and based on one prototype. Focusses on shared features rather than unique.

• In 1966
• Creativity distinguishes human beings from animals and machines
• Creativity is separate from mechanical principles and enables humans to respond in free and diverse expression

• Pun 
• Alliteration

Comedians, advertisers, comic writers

Utterances which show engagement to what the other person is saying 

eg. 'yeah' 'oh'