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State and illustrate the Socratic Method of questioning, explaining why it is of such importance to Socrates. Give an example from one of the dialogues of an exchange during which the Socratic Method is used
- Socratic Method: asking questions to inspire thought, motivate students to reach the conclusion themselves, guide the student towards the answer, rejecting false premises
- Importance: deeper understanding and belief (students believe they reasoned to conclusion themselves), inspires creative thought, not about winning argument, but rather at constructing meaning and arriving at an answer
- Example: Gorgias, dinner gathering with Sophists (explain Sophists), debates about the true meaning of rhetoric, uses this to ask them about their views of rhetoric and in turn points out the flaws of their perspective
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What is Pascal's Wager? Identify and explain at least two critiques of it
- critiques: is it real faith if you are just hedging your bets? Argues a "what's in it for me" mindset instead of loving God for who he is, which is the point of christianity, only trying to save your own skin/soul. (Voltaire: Not proof of God, does not provide evidence. inconsistent revelations, Mackie talks about how the right religion might not be that of Rome, but of any other one. how do we know?
- Features: bet God exists or bet He doesn't exist and live accordingly.
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Why might one use an analogical argument? Give an example of an analogical argument and explain why it might be a persuasive tool in an argument
- Uses: conclude that two things are alike in a given aspect because they are alike in other aspects. Use when one thing is accepted or viewed as plausible while another thing is not. Can be used to illustrate a point or explain what is meant, useful when a concept is difficult to grasp or understand
- Aristotle: evaluates arguments by strength of an analogy based on number of similarities, derived from underlying common sense or general laws, need not presuppose acquaintance with the underlying universal.
- Ex: watchmaker. watches have complex system, can't just come about by chance, therefore must have been created by someone. Universe is same, must have been created by being much more intelligent
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Compare and contrast Agape with Eros and Philia
- Agape: sacrificial, God-like love, puts beloved first. Charity. Feelings for children and spouse. Aquinas- "to will the good of another"
- Eros: romantic love. Good, but not enough to sustain. can be platonic (intimate friendships). intimate passion, sexual.
- Philia: Brotherly love. affectionate regard, friendship. love between family. Nicomachean ethics- "loyalty to friends" ("Brotherly love")
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What are the differences between a scriptural and an oral tradition?
- scriptural: written down, remains the same/similar throughout time (bible passed down for centuries, remains the same)
- oral: passed down by word of mouth. used when people were illiterate. people would memorize, back when people had really good memory. could be changed (telephone)
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Would an "outsider" or an "insider" approach be more beneficial when studying a religion?
- Insider is religion is studied to seek understanding and belief. outside if studied solely for structure and content. Most beneficial if insider can offer a perspective that does not exclude objective criticisms.
- insider: personal experience, may provide bias
- outsider: more critical, not same experience, can be unbiased, only learning the "what" kinda
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Distinguish active from passive, and voluntary from non-voluntary euthanasia. state two arguments for euthanasia and two against, carefully describing the circumstances in which euthanasia is being considered
- killing vs. letting die
- against: slippery slope- concern that legalizing would lead to unwanted consequences (not wanting to be euthanized, pressured because feels like burden, misdiagnosis). religious argument- sanctity of life. only God can choose when a life begins and ends. devalues life.
- for: pragmatic- already done, should regulate, "Do Not Resuscitate". ethical- freedom of choice, including control over body (if not infringing on anyone else's rights). Nesbitt argues against Rachels, difference between active and passive. Jones lets cousin die, Smith kills so less wrong. World full of Jones than Smiths. "Letting die" is still an action by doctors, decision.
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Compare and contrast Plato's and Aristotle's conceptions of the connection between the condition of "happiness" and the practice of "virtue." How do they each use these principles to separate right from wrong acts?
- both: virtue is essential for happiness (eudaimonia, self-fulfillment/good life)
- Plato (Republic): happiness must be moral to be truly happy. knowledge is virtue. to know good is to do the good. Socrates was best example of this. Virtue is sufficient for happiness.
- Aristotle (Nicomachean ethics): virtue ethics. need to decide to practice virtue/make a habit to be truly virtuous. wisdom is highest form of virtue, but not key to possessing all virtues. virtue is necessary for good life but not sufficient (can be virtuous but still unhappy)
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Explain the different formulations of the Categorical Imperative, defended by Kant. Does universalizability provide a good criterion for moral rules? Argue for your stance on this issue
- Formula of...
- Law of Nature (Universalizability): act only on that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law
- End in Itself: act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or int he person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end
- Autonomy: act that your will can regard itself at the same time as making universal law through its maxims (consider whether our actions are worth our status as shapers of the world)
- Kingdom of ends: act as if you were through your maxims a law-making member of a kingdom of ends. contribute to or detract from this kingdom
- good criterion when applied to specific cases where good outweighs evil
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Discuss and explain the various charges against Socrates in the Apology. Explain Socrates's defense
- defense in Greek. defends self but does not apologize. speaks with honesty and directness
- charges: Meletus: corrupting the young by teaching them to challenge the status quo. challenges people who teach false wisdom and embarrass them, earns respect from young but hatred from those. Impiety: not believing in the gods in whom the city believes
- defense: gossip = bad rep. who is good influence? knows he knows nothing, tries to call out fake wisdom. gadfly stinging lazy horse (Athenian state) to awake into virtue and productivity. Accuses Meletus of not caring, why would anyone intentionally corrupt another, then danger from person they corrupted. believes in demigods and spiritual agencies, challenges thought and blind acceptance.
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What is the role of eudaimonia in Aristotle's ethics? What are some of the requirements for a eudaimonistic life? explain why happiness is an imprecise translation of eudaimonia.
- Role: highest human good, but how to reach it? only through virtue. requires objective view of ones life, not subjective opinion on how someone assesses their QOL. virtue is necessary but not sufficient for eudaimonia
- requirements: virtue and its exercise is most important for achieving eudaimonia, but acknowledges other factors may play a part. compares a life of pleasure, political life of honor, and contemplative life. not enough to simply believe in or understand virtue. Nicomachean Ethics, best life is life of excellence in accordance with reason.
- Happiness: hedonic, pleasure. intellectual happiness, well-being, flourishing.
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For Aquinas, what are the relationships between eternal law, natural law, divine law, and human law?
- law: "a certain rule and measure of acts whereby man is induced to act or is restrained from acting"
- eternal: big picture. identical to mind of God. all other laws depend on this. God's plan for the universe
- natural: human decisions, discoverable by reason, found in the human mind
- divine: given by God through revelation, specific towards how people should act
- human: guide people to virtue through fear. subject to change. based on natural law. legal system. must align with natural law or it is not a law at all
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