Anatomy Final

Atomic number

one atom attracts shared electrons more strongly than another atom.

cations and anions that dissociate in water.

large molecules are broken down to form small molecules.

Heat energy

the concentration of the reactants increases.

Catalysts

Solvent

acidic, more

pH

Carbon Dioxide

Carbohydrate

Glycogen

glycerol and fatty acids.

monounsaturated

tertiary

Neutral

Neutrons

number of protons.

sharing electrons by the atoms.

90

Transferred

Number of protons + neutrons

Average mass of naturally occurring isotopes

polar covalent

Hydrogen

Hydrogen

Non-polar covalent

macromolecules

Avogadro's number

Synthesis

Decomposition

Ionize

Growth

Chemical

Buffered solution

decreases

Solutes

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain.

Proteins

2

6.022 x 10^23

Avogadro’s number of atoms, ions,molecules

mass of one mole of a substance in grams, which is equal to isotopic mass units.

determined by adding up atomic masses of its atoms or ions

Result from weak electrostatic attractions between oppositely charged parts or molecules, or between ions and molecules

the complete or partial loss of an electron by one substance is accompanied by the gain of that electron by another substance

energy stored in chemical bonds; energy that could do work if it were released. Breaking chemical bonds releases energy.

does work and moves matter

energy resulting from the position or movement of objects

form of potential energy in the chemical bonds of a substance

energy that flows between objects of different temperature

• generally,substances that do not contain carbon
• – Water, oxygen
• – Exceptions: CO, CO2, and HCO3-

study of carbon-containing substances. Those that are biologically active are called biochemicals

measure of number of particles of solute per volume of solution

reflects the number of particles dissolved in one kilogram of water

Avogadro’s number of particles in one kilogram of water.

a proton donor or any substance that releases hydrogen ions

a proton acceptor or any substance that binds to or accepts hydrogen ions

a compound consisting of a cation other than a hydrogen ion and an anion other than a hydroxide ion. Example: NaCl

a solution of a conjugate acid-base pair in which acid and base components occur in similar concentrations

pH of 7 or equal hydrogen and hydroxide ions

a greater concentration of hydrogen ions

a greater concentration of hydroxide ions

• composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
•  - Divided into monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides
• – Example: glucose
• – Energy sources and structure

• composed mostly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
•  - Relatively insoluble in water.  Diffuse through cell membrane
• .– Example: anabolic steroids
• – Functions: protection, insulation, physiological regulation (movement in and out of cell), component of cell membranes, energy source

composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,sometimes iodine.  Composed of amino acids.

Cholesterol, bile salts, estrogen, testosterone.

• Derived from fatty acids.
• – Function: Important regulatory molecules
• – Include thromboxanes, leukotrienes, and prostaglandins

nonpolar molecules essential for normal functioning.

sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain

folding and bending of chain caused by hydrogen bonding

formation of helices or of pleated sheets; caused in part byS-S bonds between amino acids

two or more proteins associate as a functional unit

Plasma membrane, Cytoplasm containing organelles, Nucleus

Cell metabolism and energy use, Synthesis of molecules, Communication, Reproduction and Inheritance

Time during cell division when chromatids divide

Uptake of liquid by the cell

Segregation and disposal of organelles within a cell

Uses energy derived from ATP to achieve the active transport of potassium ions opposite that of sodium ions

double layer of lipid molecules forming the plasma membrane and other cellular membranes

Pore in the cell membrane through which ions move

specialized zone of cytoplasm close to the nucleus and containing two centrioles

Division of the cytoplasm during cell division

ovum or sperm

denoting the outline of a shrunken cell

depolarization in the postsynaptic membrane that brings the membrane potential close to threshold

solution that causes cells to shrink

between cells

inward pinching of the cell membrane that divides the cell into two halves

solution that causes a cell to swell

double membrane structure surrounding and enclosing the nucleus

similar molecules binding to the same carrier molecule or receptor site

breakdown of glucose in the absence of oxygen to produce lactic acid and 2 atp

one half of a chromosome

does not require atp, moves substances into or out of the cell

cell division resulting in two new daughter cells

First step in cell division. Chromatid condense to become chromosomes

Process of cell division that produces two gametes

protoplasm surrounding the nucleus

sequences of 3 nucleotides that codes for a specific amino acid in DNA or MRNA

Uptake through the cell membrane

membrane bound bodies that either synthesize or decompose hydrogen peroxide

any foreign or other type of substance contained in the cytoplasm of a cell

interior of endoplasmic reticulum

package materials for secretion by the cell

relating to the body

outside the cell

small fibril forming bundles, sheets or networks in the cytoplasm of the cell

cell swells and ruptures

shelf-like infoldings of the inner membranes of an inner membrane

hollow tubes composed of tubulin. helps provide support

fluid filled cavity

portion of the brainstem between the midbrain and the madulla

dural fold between the two cerebral hemispheres

inferior portion of the brainstem that connects the spinal cord to the brain and contains autonomic centers controlling such functions as heart rate, respiration and swallowing

Midbrain. Consists of the cerebral peduncle and corpora quadrigemini

Becomes the pons and cerebellum

Caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus

one of two rounded eminences of the midbrain; involved in hearing

Most caudal portion of the embryonic brain; medulla oblongata in adults

edge of the neural plate as it rises to meet at the midline to form the neural tube

funnel shaped structures or passages that attach the hypophysis to the hypothalamus

connective tissue membranes surrounding the brain

In the inferior core of the adult cerebrum

region of the dorsal surface of the embryo that is transformed into the neural tube and neural crest

tube formed from the neuroectoderm by the closure of the neural groove. The neural tube develops into the spinal cord and brain

small rod of tissue lying ventral to the neural tube. a characteristic in all vertebrate. in humans it becomes the nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral discs

termination of the olfactory tract in the cerebral cortex within the lateral fissure of the cerebrum

subdivision of the ANS characterised by having cell bodies of its preganglionic neurons located in the brainstem and the sacral region of the spinal cord. Usually involved in activating vegetative function (digestion, defecation, urination)

pine cone shaped structure that produces melatonin

beneath the thalamus; important autonomic and neuroendocrine control center

black nuclear mass in the midbrain; coordinating movement and maintaining muscle tone

Midbrain; aids in eye movement

roof of the midbrain

floor of the midbrain

large mass of grey matter that forms the larger dorsal subdivision of the diencephalon

anterior division of the embryonic from where the cerebral hemispheres develope

dural folds between the cerebrum and the cerebellum

charge difference across the membrane

combination of carbohydrates and lipids (glycolipids) and proteins (glycoproteins)

Polar heads facing water in the interior and exterior of the cell (hydrophilic); nonpolar tails facing each other on the interior of the membrane (hydrophobic)

interspersed among phospholipids. Amount determines fluid nature of the membrane

• Extend deeply into membrane,often extending from one surface to the other
• – Can form channels through the membrane

Attached to integral proteins at either the inner or outer surfaces of the lipid bilayer

Glycoproteins and Glycolipids

attach cells to other cells

integral proteins that attach to extracellular molecule

• Hydrophilic region faces inward; charge determines molecules that can pass through
• (channel proteins, carrier proteins, and ATP-powered pumps.)

• always open
• – Responsible for the permeability ofthe plasma membrane to ions when the plasma membrane is at rest

can be openedor closed by certain stimuli

ion channel: open in response to small molecules that bind to proteins or glycoproteins

ion channel: open when there is a change in charge across the plasma membrane

• Integral proteins move ions from one side of membrane to the other
• – Have specific binding sites
• – Protein changes shape to transport ions or molecules
• – Resumes original shape after transport

moves one molecule

move two particles in the same direction at the sametime (cotransport)

move two particles in opposite directions at the sametime (counter transport)

Movement of solutes from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration in solution

how  easily a liquid flows

Diffusion of water (solvent) across a selectively permeable membrane. Water moves from an area of low concentration of solute to an area of high concentration of solute

force required to prevent water from moving across a membrane by osmosis

• hollow, made of tubulin.
• • Internal scaffold, transport, cell division

• Actin
• - structure, support for microvilli,contractility, movement

mechanical strength

• Smaller than lysosomes
• – Contain enzymes to break down fatty acids and amino acids
• – Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of breakdown

• Consist of large protein complexes
• – Include several enzymes that break down and recycle proteins in cell

Infoldings of inner membrane

Substance located in space formed by inner membrane

• DNA used to form RNA
• - RNA polymerase catalyses the formation of a mRNA chain using the DNA as a template and following the rules of complimentary base pairing– A with U– C with G
•  

synthesis of a protein at the ribosomes using mRNA, tRNA and rRNA

• phase between cell divisions
• – Replication of DNA
• – Ongoing normal cell activities

• series of events that leads to the production of two cells by division of a mother cell into two daughter cells. Cells are genetically identical
• .– Prophase
• – Metaphase
• – Anaphase
• – Telophase

division of cell cytoplasm

two copies of chromosomes

one copy of chromosomes, only in gametes

map of chromosomes

pairs of chromosome where one is from the father and the other is from the mother

the location of a gene on a chromosome

Study of tissues

• Inner layer
• • Forms lining of digestive tract and derivatives

Forms tissues as such muscle, bone, blood vessels

• Outer layer
• • Forms skin and neuroectoderm

• -Protecting underlying structures
• -Acting as barriers
• -Permitting the passage of substances;
• -Secreting substances
• -Absorbing substances

one layer of cells. Each extends from basement membrane to the free surface

more than one layer. Shape of cells of the apical layer used to name the tissue. Includes transitional epithelium where the apical cell layers change shape depending upon distention of the organ which the tissue lines

tissue appears to be stratified, but allcells contact basement membrane so it is in fact simple

- flat, scale-like

- about equal in height and width

• - taller than wide
•  

• Structure: single layer of flat cells
• • Location: simple squamous- lining of blood and lymphatic vessels (endothelium) and small ducts, alveoli of the lungs, loop of Henle in kidney tubules, lining of serous membranes(mesothelium) and inner surface of the eardrum.
• • Functions: diffusion, filtration, some protection against friction,secretion, absorption.

• Locations: Kidney tubules, glands and their ducts, choroid plexus of the brain, lining of terminal bronchioles of the lungs, and surface of the ovaries.
• • Structure:  single layer of cube-shaped cells; some types have microvilli(kidney tubules) or cilia (terminal bronchioles of the lungs)
• • Functions:– Secretion and absorption in the kidney– Secretion in glands and choroid plexus– Movement of  mucus out of the terminal bronchioles by ciliated cell

• Location. Glands and some ducts, bronchioles of lungs, auditory tubes, uterus,uterine tubes, stomach, intestines, gallbladder, bile ducts and ventricles of the brain.
• • Structure: single layer of tall, narrow cells. Some have cilia (bronchioles of lungs,auditory tubes, uterine tubes, and uterus) or microvilli (intestine).
• • Functions:– Movement of particles out of the bronchioles by ciliated cells
• – Aids in the movement of oocytes through the uterine tubes by ciliated cells
• – Secretion by glands of the stomach and the intestine
• – Absorption by cells of the intestine.

• Locations:
• – Moist- mouth, throat, larynx, esophagus, anus, vagina, inferior urethra,and cornea
• – Keratinized- skin
• • Structure: multiple layers of cells that are cuboidal in the basal layer and progressively flatten toward the surface. In moist,surface cells retain a nucleus and cytoplasm. In keratinized,surface cells are dead.
• • Functions: protection against abrasion, caustic chemicals, water loss, and infection.

• Locations: sweat gland ducts, ovarian follicular cells, and salivary gland ducts
• • Structure: multiple layers of somewhat cube-shaped cells.
• • Functions: secretion, absorption and protection against infections.

• Locations: mammary gland duct, larynx, portion of male urethra.
• • Structure: multiple layers of cells with tall thin cells resting on layers of more cuboidal cells.  Cells ciliated in the larynx.
• • Function: protection and secretion.

• Locations: lining of nasal cavity, nasal sinuses, auditory tubes,pharynx, trachea, and bronchi of lungs.
• • Structure: all cells reach basement membrane. Appears stratified because nuclei are at various levels.  Almost always ciliated and associated with goblet (mucus-producing) cells.
• • Functions:
• – Synthesize and secrete mucus onto the free surface
• – Move mucus (or fluid) that contains foreign particles over the free surface and from passages

• Location: lining of urinary bladder, ureters and superior urethra.
• • Structure: stratified; cells change shape depending upon amount of distention of the organ.
• • Functions: accommodates fluctuations in the volume of fluid in an organ or tube; protection against the caustic effects of urine.

disk-shaped regions of cell membrane; often found in areas that are subjected to stress.

half of a desmosome; attach epithelial cells to basement membrane.

hold cells together,  form permeability barrier

• : protein channels aid intercellular communication.
•  

no open contact with exterior; no ducts;produce hormone

• : open contact maintained with exterior; ducts
•  

• No loss of cytoplasm.Secretion leaves by either active transport or exocytosis.
• – Sweat glands.

• Fragments of the gland go into the secretion.  Apex of cell pinches off.
• – Mammary glands.

• Whole cell becomes part of secretion.  Secretion accumulates in cell, cell ruptures and dies.
• – Sebaceous glands.

• Enclose organs as a capsule and separate organs into layers
• • Connect tissues to one another.  Tendons and ligaments.
• • Support and movement. Bones.
• • Storage. Fat.
• • Cushion and insulate. Fat.
• • Transport. Blood.
• • Protect.  Cells of the immune system.

• :  create the matrix, example osteoblast
•  

maintain the matrix, example chondrocyte

break the matrix down for remodeling,example osteoclasts

polysaccharide. Good lubricant.Vitreous humor of eye.

: protein and polysaccharide. Protein part attaches to hyaluronic acid. Trap large amounts of water.

• hold proteoglycan aggregates together. 
• Chondronectin in cartilage, 
• osteonectin in bone, 
• fibronectin in fibrous connective tissue.

source of all adult connective tissue

Connect muscles to bones;

Connect bones to bones.Collagen often less compact, usually flattened, form sheets or bands

• Predominant cells are 
• Yellow(white): Most abundant type, has a wide distribution. White at birth and yellows with age.
• Brown: Found only in specific areas of body: axillae, neck and near kidneys

• Structure: large amount of collagen fibers evenly distributed in proteoglycan matrix. Smooth surface in articulations
• • Locations:– Found in areas for strong support and some flexibility: ribcage, trachea, and bronchi
• – In embryo forms most of skeleton
• – Involved in growth that increases bone length

• Structure: thick collagen fibers distributed in  proteoglycan matrix; slightly compressible and very tough
• • Locations: found in areas of body where a great deal of pressure is applied to joints
• – Knee, jaw, between vertebrae

• Structure: elastic and collagen fibers embedded in proteoglycans. Rigid but elastic properties
• • Locations: external ears and epiglottis

trabeculae of bone with spaces between.Looks like a sponge.Found inside bones.

arranged in concentric circle layers around a central canal that contains a blood vessel.Found on periphery of bones.

• Forms blood cells
• • Found in bone marrow
• • Types of bone marrow
• – Red: hemopoietic tissue surrounded by a framework of reticular fibers. Produces red and white cells
• – Yellow: yellow adipose tissue
• • As children grow, yellow marrow replaces much of red marrow

most attached to skeleton, but some attached to other types of connective tissue. Striated and voluntary.

muscle of the heart. Striated and involuntary.

muscle associated with tubular structures and with the skin. Nonstriated and involuntary

contains nucleus

cell process; conducts impulses away from cell body; usually only one per neuron

cell process; receive impulses from other neurons; can be many per neuron

• Line cavities that open to the outside of body
• – Secrete mucus
• – Contains epithelium with goblet cells,  basement membrane, lamina propria (sometimes with smooth muscle)
• – Found in respiratory, digestive,urinary and reproductive systems

• Simple squamous epithelium called mesothelium, basement membrane, thin layer of loose C.T
• .– Line cavities not open to exterior
• • Pericardial, pleural, peritoneal

• Line freely movable joints
• – Produce fluid rich in hyaluronic acid

capable of mitosis through life. skin, mucous membranes, hemopoietic tissue, lymphatic tissue

no mitosis after growth ends, but can divide after injury. Liver, pancreas, endocrine cells

if killed, replaced by a different type of cell.  Limited regenerative ability. nervous, skeletal and cardiac muscle

• Skin
• – Hair
• – Nails
• – Glands

• Protection
• – Sensation
• – Temperature regulation
• – Vitamin D production
• – Excretion
• – Immunity

• : most cells. Produce keratin for strength
•  

contribute to skin color. Melanin produced by these cells then transferred to keratinocytes. Same number of melanocytes in all people.

: part of the immune system

detect light, touch, and superficial pressure

Deepest portion of epidermis and single layer. High mitotic activity and cells become keratinized

Limited cell division. Desmosomes. Lamellar bodies and additional keratin fibers

Contains keratohyalin. In superficial layers nucleus and other organelles degenerate and cell dies

• Thin, clear zone. Found only in palms and soles
•  

• Most superficial and consists of cornified cells
•  

Superficial (outer) 1/5. Areolar with lots of elastic fibers. Dermal papillae, capillary beds. Fingerprints. Whorls of ridges. Touch receptors (Meissner’s), free nerve endingssensing pain

Deep (inner) 4/5. Dense irregular C.T. Collagen and elastic fibers. In the figure see: some adipose, hair follicles, nerves, oil glands, ducts of sweat glands, heat sensors.

Two types traditionally called apocrine and merocrine, but apocrine may secrete in a merocrine or holocrine fashion.

modified merocrine sweat glands, external auditory meatus.

modified apocrine sweat glands. Covered with reproductive chapter.

• : stratum corneum
•  

corneum superficial to nail body, hyponychium is corneum beneath the free edge

cells that give rise to the nail

Pressure, temperature, pain,heat, cold, touch, movement of hairs.

• sweating and radiation.
• -Sweat causes evaporative cooling.– Arterioles in dermis change diameter as temperature changes. More or less blood flows through the dermis.

• : form matrix
•  

surrounded by matrix; are lacunae

Double-layered C.T. sheath. Covers cartilage except at articulations– Inner. More delicate, has fewer fibers, contains chondroblasts– Outer. Blood vessels and nerves penetrate.  No blood vessels in cartilage itself

New chondrocytes and new matrix at the periphery.New tissue added at surface (on outside).

Chondrocytes within the tissue divide and add more matrix between the cells.

• Osteoblasts
• – Osteocytes
• – Osteoclasts
• – Stem cells or osteochondral progenitor cells

: collagen fibers randomly oriented

: mature bone in sheets

Formation of bone through ossification or osteogenesis.Collagen produced by E.R. and golgi.  Released by exocytosis. Precursors of hydroxyapatite stored in vesicles, then released by exocytosis.

formation of bone by osteoblasts.  Osteoblasts communicate through gap junctions.  Cells surround themselves by matrix.

large membrane-covered spaces between developing skull bones; unossified

epiphyseal plate is ossified becoming the epiphyseal line. Between 12 and 25 years of age

Replacement of cancellous bone and damaged material by compact bone.Sculpting of site by osteoclasts

• Skull
• – Hyoid bone
• – Vertebral column
• – Thoracic (rib) cage

• Limbs
• – Girdles

• Place where two bones (or bone and cartilage) come together
• – Can be freely movable, have limited, or no apparent movement
• – Structure correlated with movement

• According to bones or parts united at joint- temporo-mandibular
• – According to only one of articulating bones- humera
• l– By Latin equivalent of common name- cubital

• Characteristics
• – United by fibrous connective tissue
• – Have no joint cavity
• – Move little or none
• • Types: Sutures, Syndesmoses, Gomphoses

• Unite two bones by means of cartilage
• • Types
• – Synchondroses: hyaline cartilage
• – Symphyses: fibrocartilage

• Contain synovial fluid
• • Allow considerable movement
• • Most joints that unite bones of appendicular skeleton reflecting greater mobility of appendicular skeleton compared to axial
• • Complex

movement of a body part anterior to the coronal plane

movement of a body part posterior to the coronal plane

• standing on the toes
•  

footlifted toward the shin

movement away from the median plane

movement toward the median plane

turning of a structure on its long axis

refer to unique rotation ofthe forearm

• Combination of flexion,extension, abduction,adduction
• – Appendage describes acone