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Autoimmune is when the immune system attacks ______. State a sign that this is occuring
- the body
- inflammed/ swollen lymph nodes
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T cells develop in the _____. All blood cells are made in the ____ _____
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We have lymph nodes throughout the lymphatic system with _____ and ______ ready for combat
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Multipotent cells are ___ ___ that become a variety of cells like red or white blood cells
stem cells
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Totipotent cells can become ______ for example, a _____.
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B and T cells are _____ for what they kill and natural killer cells are _____ for what they kill
- specified
- nonspecified (they dont care and will off any threats that draw them)
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Most important nonspecific defense is the _____. It works like a barrier along with _____ ______ to keep bacteria out
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Two types of specific response
- humoral immune response
- cellular immune response
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Humoral immune response (B cells):
Cellular immune response (T cells specifically cytotoxic T cells):
Make antibodies
- Killing own cells
- *both work together simultaneously
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Epitope
specific site on antigens where antibodies will bind (they will only bind to highly specified epitopes). Once bound, antigens will be neutralized/ viruses won't be able to replicate etc
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How many antibodies does any given form a B cell express on its membrane? How many types of antibodies per B cell? Where do the antibodies bind to the antigen?
- 10,000 membrane bound antibodies
- 1 type
- at the epitope
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B cells have variable regions (variable light chain constant light chain, variable heavy chain & constant heavy chain) that allow us to form unique binding sites or an epitope. How many different combos can they make?
There are 10 billion combos of variable regions so we can get any epitope for any antigen we want
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What is the innate problem of having 10 billion combos of variable regions on your B cells?
How do we solve this problem?
some of the epitopes will fit our own cells for destruction
Any B or T cell that show the potential to mount an immunes response to self antigens undergo apoptosis (clonal deletion)
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Despite having to fit our own cells for destruction to avoid autoimmune issues, we still have ________ antigens we can respond to after getting rid of the clones
10 million
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Humoral immune response story
B cell story (HIR): (8)
- Epitope will be specific to the B cell clone and antigen
- B cell will bind to antigen at the epitope, then phagocytose it.
- The B cell will then present an extracellular fragment on MHC II protein
- An effector T cell will bind to the extracellular fragment at MHC II and release cytokines
- This will activate the B cell and it will then proliferate and differentiate into effector B cells aka plasma cells & memory B cells
- Effector B cells:
- A) Plasma cells are like factories and they churn out antibodies (not membrane bound) that are free to move through the blood stream
- B)The antibodies will tag or mark antigen. This will automatically neutralize them
- Memory B cells: We will have memory cells left behind (even more B cells than originally produced) in case of any subsequent attacks
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Humoral immune response story
macrophage story (3):
- Macrophages, dendritic cells, killer cells will recognize tag and kill and clean out the antigen
- Macrophage will phagocytose and chew up the antigen
- Whatever remains after phagocytosis (extracellular fragment) is presented on a Class II MHC protein (only macrophages, dendritic cells and B cells can present w/ this protein)
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T helper cell story (HIR): (3)
- T helper cells has a receptor that can only bind to the MHC II and the extracellular fragment (highly specific)
- T helper cell & the macrophage will release cytokines and this will activate the T helper cell
- T helper cell will proliferate and differentiate into two different types, effector and memory T helper cells END
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There are always 2 steps with humoral immune response, we either have to 1st catch the antigen with a macrophage and then use a helper T cell or catch it with a B cell and then use a helper T cell to complete the full response. Why are there 2 steps
In case we get harmless antigens that aren't replicating or creating large problems, it is more efficient to not waste the full response. This way we only get full responses to real dangers
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On the surface of every cell, other than ____ ____ _____, there are _____ ____ _____ proteins expressed
- Red blood cells
- Class I MHC proteins
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There are two types of effector T cells
- T helper cells (HIR)
- Cytotoxic T cells (CMIR)
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Effector T cells also have ____ and ____ regions. Their job is to recognize cells that have gone bad in the body like _____ cells, ____ ____ cells and ____ cells that'll lead to an autoimmune response and initiate ______
- variable & constant
- cancerous
- virally latent cells
- clone
- apoptosis
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Cytotoxic T cell vs cancer cell story: (4)
- Cell notices the cancer and says OH SHIT and responds hopefully before it begins to multiply
- Cell will take a piece of itself, an intracellular fragment, and presents it on an MHC I protein
- Killer T cell binds to a piece of antigen on the surface of MHC I receptors
- Once bound it'll become active and proliferate and differentiate into effector and memory cells.
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Effector Killer T cell (story): (4)
- Job is to Kill the cell and we will have an army thanks to proliferation
- Any presenting cancerous cells will be bound to at the MHC I receptor and effector killer T will release cytotoxins
- Cytotoxins will activate apoptosis causing the cell to die
- There is no 2 step process here, any cancerous cell, virally latent cell, or clone autoimmune disaster waiting to happen is worthy of the full response every time
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All boundaries between us and the outside world are ______ tissues
epithelial
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Example of a cytotoxin
perforin, it swiss cheeses the membrane of the cell activating apoptosis
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Extracellular matrix
outside of the cell, proteins, collagen, integrins, fiber
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4 types of tissues
epithelial tissue (boundaries) connective tissue (support), muscles and nervous tissue (excitable)
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Homeostasis is about maintaining set points We use negative & positive feedback loops to maintain these set points. The most common is ______ feedback loops
negative
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Which nuclei track temperature changes
We have anterior and posterior hypothalamic nuclei that can track our internal temperature
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If we get a little too warm, and out of the set range, there is an error signal. What happens next?
We will begin to sweat, blood vessels will dialate, and our temp will reenter the set range
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If we get a little too cold, and out of the set range, there is an error signal at the thermosensor. What happens next?
we may shiver, blood vessles will constrict and might increase metabolism
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