Psych 201 Unit 3

The psychological conflict of the preschool years. As the word initiative suggests, young children have a new sense of purposefulness. They are eager to tackle new tasks, join in activities with peers, and discover what they can do with the help of adults. They also make strides in conscience development

As a means through which young children learn about themselves and their social world

A confident self-image, more effective control over their emotions, new social skills, the foundations of morality, and a clear sense of themselves as boy or girl

Young children to talk about their own subjective experience of being

The set of attributes, abilities, attitudes, and values that an individual believe defines who he or she is

Observable characteristics, such as their name, physical appearance, possessions, and everyday behaviors

The judgments we make about our own worth and the feelings associated with those judgments

By adjusting their expectations to children's capacities, scaffolding children's attempts at difficult tasks, and pointing out effort and improvement children's behavior

Gains in representation, language, and self-concept

Feelings that involve injury to or enhancement of their sense of self

Actions that benefit another person without any expected reward for the self

Feelings of concern or sorrow for another's plight

Mildred Parten

Unoccupied, onlooker behavior and solitary play

A child plays near other children with similar materials but does not try to influence their behavior

Children engage in separate activities but exchange toys and comment on one another's behavior

A more advanced type of interaction, children orient toward a common goal, such as acting out a make-believe theme

An adult helps the child notice feelings by pointing out the effects of the child's misbehavior on others

The use of physical force to inflict pain but not injury

Parental harshness and corporal punishment

Involves removing children from the immediate setting--for example, by sending them to their rooms--until they are ready to act appropriately

Growth centers in which cartilage hardens into bone

Progress toward physical maturity

Neurons that are seldom stimulated lose their connective fibers and the number of synapses gradually declines

Specialize in cognitive functions

Handedness reflects the greater capacity of one side of the brain--the individual's dominant cerebral hemisphere--to carry out skilled motor action

At the rear and base of the brain, a structure that aids in balance and control of body movements

A structure in the brain stem that maintains alertness and consciousness

An inner-brain structure, which plays a vital role in memory and in images of space that help us find our way

A large bundle of fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres

Located at the base of the brain, plays a critical role by releasing two hormones that induce growth

Necessary for development of all body tissues except the central nervous system and the genitals, a pituitary hormone

A second pituitary hormone, prompts the thyroid gland in the neck to release thyroxine, which is necessary for brain development and for GH to have its full impact on body size

Sick children are given a solution of glucose, salt, and water that quickly replaces fluids the body loses

Children continue to integrate previously acquired skills into more complex

Spans the years 2 to 7, the most obvious change is an extraordinary increase in representational, or symbolic, activity

The make-believe with others that is under way by the end of the second year and increases rapidly in complexity during early childhood

Viewing a symbolic object as both an object in its own right and a symbol

Failure to distinguish others' symbolic viewpoints from one's own

Mental actions that obey logical rules

The belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities

Refers to the idea that certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same, even when their outward appearance changes

They focus on one aspect of a situation, neglecting other important features

The organization of objects into classes and subclasses on the basis of similarities and difference

An inability to mentally go through a series of steps in a problem and then reverse direction, returning to the starting point

Ones that are at an intermediate level of generality

The internal verbal dialogues we carry on while thinking and acting in everyday situations

As a result, children's self-directed speech is now called private speech instead of egocentric speech

Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance

Barbara Rogoff

A broader concept than scaffolding. It refers to shared endeavors between more expert and less expert participants, without specifying the precise feautres of communication

Ability to tell whether a stimulus is the same as or similar to one they have seen before

Deliberate mental activities that improve our chances of remembering

That the child generate a mental image of an absent stimulus

Grouping together items that are alike so they can easily retrieve them by thinking of their similar characteristics

Memory for everyday experiences

General descriptions of what occurs and when it occurs in a particular situation

Organize and interpret everyday experiences

Representations of personally meaningful, one-time events

The adult follows the child's lead, asks varied questions, adds information to the child's statements, and volunteers their own recollections and evaluations of events

Adults provide little information and keep repeating the same questions regardless of the child's interest

Coherent set of ideas about mental activities

Thinking about thought

Children's active efforts to construct literacy knowledge through informal experiences

Absorbed in the self

The ability to reflect on and manipulate the sound structure of spoken language

Adults discuss storybook content with preschoolers

Order relationships between quantities

The last number in a counting sequence indicates the quantity of items in a set

By age 6 to 7

A program with planned educational experiences aimed at enhancing the development of 2 to 5 year olds

Refers to a variety of arrangements for supervising children

Teachers provide a variety of activities from which children select, and much learning takes places through play

Teachers structure children's learning, teaching letters, numbers, colors, shapes, and other academic skills through formal lessons, often using repetition and drill

Most extensive of these federal programs, began in 1965. A typical Head Start center provides children with a year or two of preschool, along with nutritional and health services. Parent involvement is central to the Head Start philosophy

Connect new words with their underlying concepts after only a brief encounter

The assumption that words refer to entirely separate (non-overlapping) categories

Overextend the rules to words that are exceptions

A set of procedures for analyzing the language they hear

Children must learn to engage in effective and appropriate communication. This practical, social side of language is called pragmatics

Restructuring inaccurate speech into correct form

Elaborating on children's speech, increasing its complexity

Which protect people's rights and welfare, from two other type of rules and expectations: social conventions and matters of personal choice

Customs determine solely by consensus, such as table manners and politeness rituals

Such as friends hairstyle, and leisure activities, which do not violate rights and are up to the individual

Children act to fulfill a need or desire--obtain an object, privilege, space, or social reward, such as adult or peer attention--and unemotionally attack a person to achieve their goal

An angry, defensive response to provocation or a blocked goal and is meant to hurt another person

Harms others through physical injury

Harms others through threats of physical aggression, name-calling, or hostile teasing

Damages another's peer relationships through social exclusion, malicious gossip, or friendship manipulation

57%

Refers to any association of objects, activities, roles, or traits with one sex or the other in ways that conform to cultural stereotypes

More positive evaluations of members of one's own gender

A full understanding of the biologically based permanence of their gender, including the realization that sex remains the same even if clothing, hairstyle, and play activities change

An image of oneself as relatively masculine or feminine in characteristics

Scoring high on both masculine and feminine personality characteristics

An information-processing approach that combines social learning and cognitive-developmental features. It explains how environmental pressures and children's cognitions work together to shape gender-role development

A combination of parenting behaviors that occur over a wide range of situations, creating an enduring child-rearing climate

Is low in acceptance and involvement, high in coercive control, and low in autonomy granting

The most successful approach that involves high acceptance and involvement, adaptive control techniques, and appropriate autonomy granting

Is warm and accepting but uninvolved. Permissive parents are either overindulgent or inattentive and thus, engage in little control. Instead of gradually granting autonomy, they allow children to make many of their own decisions at an age when they are not yet capable of doing so

Behaviors that intrude on and manipulate children's verbal expression, individuality, and attachments to parents

Combines low acceptance and involvement with little control and general indifference to issues of autonomy

A greater-than-20 percent increase over healthy weight, based on body mass index (BMI), which is a ratio of weight to height associated with body fat

A BMI above the 85th percentile for a child's age and sex is considered overweight, a BMI above the 95th percentile obese

Nearsightedness

Flexibility, balance, agility, and force

Friendly chasing and play-fighting

A stable ordering of group members that predicts who will win when conflict arises

Extends from about 7 to 11 years. Compared with early childhood, thought is far more logical, flexible, and organized

The capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point

Mental actions that obey logical rules

Focusing on several aspects of a problem and relating them, rather than centering on just one

The ability to order items along a quantitative dimension, such as length or weight

The concrete operational child can also seriate mentally

Mental representations of familiar large-scale spaces, such as their neighborhood or school

The proportional relation between a space and its representation on a map

Gradual mastery

That the development of operational thinking can best be understood in terms of gains in information-processing speed rather than a sudden sift to a new stage

Proposed that, with practice, cognitive schemes demand less attention and become more automatic

Networks of concepts and relations that permit them to think more effectively about a wide range of situations

Involves inattention, impulsivity, and excessive motor activity resulting in academic and social problems

Deliberate mental activities we use to store and retain information

Repeating the information to herself

Grouping related items together

Based on common properties

Creating a relationship, or shared meaning, between two or more pieces of information that do not belong to the same category

Set of ideas about mental activities

The process of continuously monitoring progress toward a goal, checking outcomes, and redirecting unsuccessful efforts

Argued that from the beginning, children should be exposed to text in its complete form--stories, poems, letters posters, and lists--so that they can appreciate the communicative function of written language

Believing that children should first be coached on phonics--the basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds. Only after mastering these skills should they get complex reading material

Identifies three broad, interacting intelligences: 1. analytical intelligence, or information processing skills; 2. creative intelligence, the capacity to solve novel problems; and 3. practical intelligence, application of intellectual skills in everyday situations. Intelligent behavior involves balancing all three to succeed in life according to one's personal goals and the requirements of one's cultural community

Defines intelligence in terms of distinct sets of processing operations that permit individuals to engage in a wide range of culturally valued activities. Dismissing the idea of general intelligence, Gardner proposes at least eight independent intelligences

• -Linguistic
• -Logico-mathematical
• -Musical
• -Spatial
• -Bodily-kinesthetic 
• -Naturalist
• -Interpersonal
• -Intrapersonal

Refers to a set of emotional abilities that enable individuals to process and adapt to emotional information. To measure it, researchers have devised items tapping emotional skills that enable people to manage their own emotions and interact competently with peers

The fear of being judged on the basis of a negative stereotype--can trigger anxiety that interferes with performance

An innovation consistent with Vygotsky's zone of proximal development, an adult introduces purposeful teaching into the testing situation to find out what the child can attain with social support

The teacher is the sole authority for knowledge, rules, and decision making. Students are relatively passive--listening, responding when called on, and completing teacher-assigned tasks. Their progress is evaluated by how well they keep pace with a uniform set of standards for their grade

Encourages students to construct their own knowledge. Although constructivist approaches vary, many are grounded in Piaget's theory, which views children as active agents who reflect on and coordinate their own thoughts rather than absorbing those of others. A glance inside a constructivist classroom reveals richly equipped learning centers, small groups and individuals solving self-chosen problems, and a teacher who guides and supports in response to children's needs. Students are evaluated by considering their progress in relation to their own prior development

Children participate in a wide range of challenging activities with teachers and peers, with whom they jointly construct understandings. As children acquire knowledge and strategies through working together, they become competent, contributing members of their classroom community and advance in cognitive and social development

Small groups of classmates work toward common goals--by resolving differences of opinion, sharing responsibilities, and providing one another with sufficient explanations to correct misunderstandings

Children may adopt teachers' positive or negative views and start to live up to them

Students with learning difficulties learn alongside typical students in the regular educational setting for all or part of the school day--a practice designed to prepare them for participation in society and to combat prejudices against individuals with disabilities

Great difficulty with one or more aspects of learning, usually reading. As a result, their achievement is considerably behind what would be expected on the basis of their IQ

Displaying exceptional intellectual strengths

The ability to produce work that is original yet appropriate--something others have not thought of that is useful in some way

The generation of multiple and unusual possibilities when faced with a task or problem

Involves arriving at a single correct answer and is emphasized on intelligence tests

Outstanding performance in a specific field

The psychological conflict of middle childhood, which is resolved positively when children develop a sense of competence at useful skills and tasks

Judgments of their appearance, abilities, and behavior in relation to those of others

Crediting their successes to ability--a characteristic they can improve through trying hard and can count on when facing new challenges. And they attribute failure to factors that can be changed or controlled, such as insufficient effort or a very difficult task

Attribute their failures, not their successes, to ability. When they succeed, they conclude that external factors, such as luck, are responsible. Unlike their mastery-oriented counterparts, they believe that ability is fixed and cannot be improved by trying hard

They appraise the situation as changeable, identify the difficulty, and decide what to do about it. If problem solving does not work, they engage in emotion-centered coping

Is internal, private, and aimed at controlling distress when little can be done about an outcome

A feeling of being in control of their emotional experience

Collectives that generate unique values and standards for behavior and a social structure of leaders and followers

Refers to likability--the extent to which a child is viewed by a group of age-mates, such as classmates, as a worthy social partner

• -Combine academic and social competence
• -The majority of popular children

Include "tough" boys--athletically skilled but poor students who cause trouble and defy adult authority--and relationally aggressive boys and girls who enhance their own status by ignoring, excluding, and spreading rumors about other children

Who get many positive votes (are well-liked)

Who get many negative votes (are disliked)

Who get a large number of positive and negative votes (are both liked and disliked)

Who are seldom mentioned, either positively or negatively

Show high rates of conflict, physical and relational aggression, and hyperactive, inattentive, and impulsive behavior

Are passive and socially awkward

Certain children become targets of verbal and physical attacks or other forms of abuse

A form of supervision in which parents exercise general oversight while letting children take charge of moment-by-moment decision making

About 60% of divorced parents remarry within a few years. Others cohabit, or share a sexual relationship and a residence with a partner outside of marriage. Parent, stepparent, and children form a new family structure

Who regularly look after themselves for some period of time after school

About 5% of school-age children develop an intense, unmanageable fear