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What are the 5 characteristics of life?
- Cellular organization
- Energy utilization
- Homeostasis
- Growth, development, reproduction
- Heredity
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What are the cellular levels of hierarchical organization?
- Atoms
- Molecule
- Macromolecule
- organelle
- cell
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What are the organismal levels of hierarchical organization?
- Tissue
- Organ
- Organ System
- Organism
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What are the populational levels of hierarchical organization?
- Population
- Species
- Community
- Ecosystem
- Biosphere
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Emergent properties
Result from the way in which components interact, and often cannot be guessed just by looking at the parts themselves. ie-the cells that make up a body, metabolism, consciousness
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Inductive reasoning
Uses specific observations to construct general scientific principles
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Homologous Structures
Same evolutionary origin, but they now differ in structure and function
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Analogous Structures
Similar function but different evolutionary origins (wings of birds and butterflies)
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Phylogenetic Tree
Pattern of genetic descent or evolutionary history of a gene.
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Cell Theory
All living organisms consist of cells
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Prokaryotes
- Lack a nucleus
- Cell Wall and plasma membrane
- No membrane-bound organelles
- Contain ribosomes
- Bacteria and Archaea
- Many use flagella
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Difference between bacteria and archaea
Archaea lack the peptidoglycan found in the cell walls of bacteria
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Eukaryotes
- Have membrane-bound organelles
- Have nucleus
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Transcription
- Formation of RNA from DNA
- Occurs in nucleus
- RNA moves into cytoplasm
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Translation
RNA is translated to form polypetide chains (proteins)
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What makes up a nucleotide?
- Pentose
- phosphate
- Organic nitrogenous base
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Entropy
Disorder in the universe or random molecular motion
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Enthalpy
Total energy in a molecule's chemical bonds
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Endergonic reaction
Reaction that requires an input of energy
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Exergonic reaction
Reaction that has a release of energy or heat
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Polymorphic
More than one allele at frequencies significantly greater than would occur due to mutation alone.
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Industrial melanism
Phenomenon in which darker individuals come to predominate over lighter ones
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Which gene, located on chromosome 16 in mammals, determines hair color?
mc1r
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Vestigial structures
Anatomical structures that have no apparent function, but resemble structures their ancestors possessed.
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Convergent evolution
When phenotypes converge between two groups because of parallel evolutionary adaptations in similar environments. ie-similar body shape in marine species
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Endemic species
Species found in one place and one place only
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Law of superposition
The deeper something is, the older it is, the higher the younger
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Developmental homology
Common developmental history between species that acts as evidence of a common ancestor. ie- structures present in an embryo that develop into other structures
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What causes evolution?
- VISTA
- Variation
- Inheritance
- Selection
- Time
- Adaptation
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Proximate explanation
How does it occur?
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Ultimate explanation
Why does it occur?
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Taxonomic Hierarchy
- Domain
- Kingdom
- Phylum
- Class
- Order
- Family
- Genus
- Species
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Monophyletic Group
Consists of the most recent common ancestor and all of its descendants
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Paraphyletic Group
Consists of the most recent common ancestor and some of its descendants
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Polyphyletic Group
Does not contain the most recent common ancestor, ie- birds and bats
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Phylogenetic species concept
Propose that the term species should be applied to groups of populations that have been evolving independently of other groups of populations.
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Three basic shapes of bacteria
- Rod/Bacillus
- Spherical/Coccus
- Spiral/spirillum
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Gram Positive Bacteria
- Thicker peptidoglycan wall
- Stain purple in color
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Gram Negative Bacteria
- Less peptidoglycan
- Stain dark pink
- Lipopolysaccharide outer membrane
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Why are viruses not considered living organisms?
They lack many of the features associated with life, including cellular structure, and independent metabolism or replication
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Hyphae
Continuous or branching tubes filled with cytoplasm and multiple nuclei which compose most of the body of a fungus
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Mycelium
Mass of connected hyphae
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Monokaryotic
Contains one nucleus
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Dikaryotic
Contains two nuclei
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How do fungi reproduce?
- Sexually and asexually
- Spores
- Zygosporangium
- Asci
- Basidia
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4 Major Phyla of Fungi
- Chytridiomycota
- Zygomycota
- Ascomycota
- Basidiomycota
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Plasmogamy
When two haploid cells fuse their cytoplasms to mate and become dikaryotic in fungal reproduction
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Karyogamy
When nuclei fuse and become diploid after plasmogamy in fungal reproduction
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Deuterostomes
The mouth of the adult animal does not develop from the blastopore. The blastospore develops into the anus
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Determinate Development
The type of tissue each embryonic cell will form in the adult is determined early in many lineages even before cleavage begins.
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Indeterminate Development
Two identical daughter cells can develop into separate complete organisms because the molecules that signal the embryonic cells to develop differently are not segregated into different cells until later in the embryo's development
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2 Different Types of Biomes
- Biotic: population, community
- Abiotic: temperature, soil, water, sunlight, wind, energy, base materials
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Random spacing
Occurs when individuals of a population do not interact strongly with one another.
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Uniform Spacing
- Competition for resources
- Results from behavioral interactions such as defending territory
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Clumped spacing
- Response to uneven distribution of resources in their immediate environment
- Social interactions such as herds, prides, and flocks
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Source-sink metapopulations
Populations in better areas continually send out dispersers that bolster the population in the poorer habitats
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Cohort
Group of individuals of the same age
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Fecundity
Number of offspring produced in a standard time
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3 Types of Life Cycles
- Type 1: live longer, more parental care
- Type 2: Individuals are equally likely to die at any age
- Type 3: produce many offspring with no parental care, many die at first but have low mortality rate after established
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Cost of reproduction
Reduction of future reproduction potential resulting from current reproductive efforts
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Semelparity
One large reproductive event and then death
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Iteroparity
Produce offspring several times over many seasons.
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Equation for growth potential
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'r' (intrinsic growth rate)=?
r= birth rate-death rate
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Density Dependent Factors
Factors that are related to population size. ie-reproduction, mortality from predation. As population size increases, reproductive rates decrease or mortality increases
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Density Independent Factors
Unrelated to population size, ie-environmental factors
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r-Selected species
- Early reproductive age
- Short life span
- Short maturation time
- High mortality rate
- Many offspring
- Low number of reproductions per lifetime
- No parental care
- Small offspring
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K-selected species
- Late reproductive age
- Long life span
- Long maturation time
- Usually low mortality rate
- Few offspring
- Many reproductions per lifetime
- Extensive parental care
- Large offspring
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Fundamental niche
The entire niche that a species is capable of using, based on its physiological tolerance limits and resource needs, without competition
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Realized niche
The actual set of environmental conditions, including the presence of competion
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Competitive exclusion
If two species are competing for a limited resource, the species that uses the resource more efficiently will eventually eliminate the other locally
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Resource partitioning
When different species subdivide a niche to avoid competing for resources
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Batesian mimicry
a harmless species mimics a harmful one
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Mullerian mimicry
Two unpalatable species mimic each other (bees and wasps)
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Parasitism
- (+/-)
- One species benefits while the other is harmed
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Mutualism
- (+/+)
- Obligate: one species cannot survive without the other
- Facultative: species greatly benefit but do not require each other
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Commensalism
- (0/0)
- no benefit or detriment from coexistance
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Ecological Succession
Over time, one community is replaced by another
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Stages of ecological succession
- Pioneer (1 species)
- Consolidation (new species introduced, low competition)
- Subclimax (high competition, limited resources)
- Climax (1 species lost, cycle repeats)
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5 Trophic Levels
- 1- Primary producer
- 2- Herbivores
- 3- Primary carnivores
- 4- Secondary carnivores
- 5- Detritivores (consume dead matter)
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Latitude at which air moves towards the poles and there is limited sunlight
60 degrees
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Latitude at which cool, dry air descends back to Earth and moderate exposure to sunlight
30 degrees
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Latitude at which radiation cases warm, moist air to rise, direct exposure to sunlight
Equator
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Aposematic coloration
Warning coloration used in poisonous species
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Transcriptomes
A snap shot of messenger RNA, shows how genes are expressed under certain stimuli
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Eutrophic
High nutrients, low water level, prone to abundance of algae
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Oligotrophic
Low nutrients, high water level
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Facilitation
One species paves the way for another
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Inhibition
Species actively compete
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Bottom-Up Productivity
- Abundance of organisms at each level determined by rate of food production for them to eat
- As resources go up, producers and consumers go up
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Top-down productivity
- Carnivores depress herbivore populations
- As carnivores go up, everything else goes down
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Gross Primary Production (GPP)
Total primary production
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Net Primary Production (NPP)
- GPP minus energy used by primary producers for respiration
- Only NPP is available to consumers
- Productivity Relative to Biomass: NPP/biomass
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Ecosystem Energy Flow
- 1,000,000 J of sunlight
- 10,000 J allotted to primary producers
- 1,000 J allotted to primary consumers
- 100 J allotted to secondary consumers
- 10 J allotted to tertiary consumers
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