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Nonpolar Covalent Bond
Bonded atoms share electrons evenly
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Polar Covalent Bond
One of the atoms attracts electrons more
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Induction
Shifting of electrons within their orbitals results in a dipole moment
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What kind of molecular forces are there?
- dipole-dipole
- hydrogen bonding
- London-dispersion forces
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Dipole-dipole
- Result when polar molecules line up their opposite charges
- Acetone has permanent dipole-dipole interactions that result from difference in EN between carbon and oxygen
- affects melting and boiling points
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Hydrogen Bonding
- A very strong type of dipole-dipole
- strong because partial charges are large
- only when a hydrogen bonds with O, N, or F will it have a large positive charge
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London-Dispersion Forces
Weakest force, effect of random electron charges passing by
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Reagent
substance added to a system in order to bring about a chemical reaction
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Bronsted-Lowry definition of Acid/Base Reactions
- Acids donate a proton
- Bases accept a proton
- Reversable
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The stronger the acid...
The weaker its conjugate base and vice versa
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Acid-base equilibria always favor-
The weakest acid and weakest base
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Acid/Base reactions occur in how many steps?
one
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Quantitative Strength Analysis
Using numerical data to compare how strong acids are
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What is  ?
The equilibrium constant for the reaction between acid and water
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What is the equation for ?
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What is the equation for  ?
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What is the pKa for Alkanes?
~50
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pKa for Ketone/aldehyde
20-24
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pKa for Alcohol (CH3OH)
17
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pkA for Protonated amines
9-11
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pKa for Carboxylic acids
4
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pKa for Hydrofluoric acid
3.2
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pKa for Sulfonic acids
-1
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pKa for Hydronium ion (H3O+)
-1.7
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pKa for Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
-3
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pKa for Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
-6
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pKa for Hydrobromic acid (HBr)
-9
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pKa for Hydroiodic acid (HI)
-10
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What is better at stabilizing negative charges?
Atoms with higher electronegativity
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Resonance stabilizes formal negative charges by...
spreading it out into partial charges in the pi bonds
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Induction stabilizes formal negative charges by...
Spreading it out into partial charges in the sigma bonds
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Sp3 orbital
Tetrahedral electron group, 109.5 angles
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Sp2 orbitals (hybridized and unhybridized)
- hybridized: sigma bonds
- unhybridized: pi ponds
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What creates more stable negative charges and stronger bonds?
Shorter distance between atom's nuclei
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Solvation
When a solvent makes an acid stronger by forming ion-dipole attractions to stabilize the formal negative charge. The more room for bonding, the more a solvent can stabilize.
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Hydrocarbons
Compounds that are only composed of hydrogen and carbon
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Alkanes
Saturated hydrocarbons that do not contain pi bonds
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Hydrocarbon Functional Groups
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Simple Oxygen Heteroatomic Functional Groups
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Halogen Heteroatomics Functional Groups
Haloalkane
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Carbonyl Compounds Functional Groups
- Aldehyde
- Ketone
- Carboxylic Acid
- Acid Anhydride
- Ester
- Amide
- Acyl Halide
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Nitrogen Based Functional Groups
- Amine
- Nitrile
- Imine
- Isocyanate
- Azo Compound
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Sulfur based functional groups
Thiol
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Aromatic functional groups
Arene
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Parent chain
Longest consecutive chain of carbons
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1 Carbon Parent chain
Methane
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2 carbon parent chain
ethane
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3 carbon parent chain
propane
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4 carbon parent chain
butane
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5 carbon parent chain
pentane
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6 carbon parent chain
hexane
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7 carbon parent chain
heptane
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8 carbon parent chain
octane
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9 carbon parent chain
nonane
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10 carbon parent chain
decane
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If there is more than one possible parent chain...
Choose the one with the most substituents attached
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If the parent chain is cyclic (ring)...
Add the prefix "cyclo" to the beginning of the name
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How to Identify Substituents
Count the number of carbons in each side group and use the same prefix terms as parent chain but end with -yl instead of -ane
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How to name complex substituents
- Number the longest chain within the substituent, start with carbon directly attached to main chain
- Name the substituent
- Name and number the substituent's side group
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Common names for 3 atom substituents
- Propyl
- Isopropyl (1-methyethyl)
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Common names for 4 atom substituents
- Butyl
- sec-butyl (1-methylpropyl)
- Isobutyl (2-methylpropyl)
- tert-butyl (1,1-dimethylethyl)
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How to name from structure
- Identify longest chain
- Identify substituents and positions
- Methyl
- Ethyl
- Isopropyl
- Determine priorities
- Alphabetize to finish naming
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Constitutional Isomer
Same formula, different connectivity
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Stereoisomer
Same formula, same connectivity
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Conformational Isomer
same formula, same connectivity, compounds can be interconverted by rotation about single bonds
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Configurational Isomer
same formula, same connectivity, compounds cannot be interconverted by rotation about single bonds
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Geometric Isomer
same formula, same connectivity, compounds cannot be interconverted by rotation about single bonds, isomerism is at a double bond
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Optical Isomer
same formula, same connectivity, compounds cannot be interconverted by rotation about single bonds, isomerism is not at a double bond
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Disasteromers
same formula, same connectivity, compounds cannot be interconverted by rotation about single bonds, isomerism is not a double bond, compounds are superimposable mirror images
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Enantiomers
same formula, same connectivity, compounds cannot be interconverted by rotation about single bonds, isomerism is not double bond, compounds are not superimposable mirror images
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Cis-Trans Isomers
- Double bonds cannot rotate
- Cis: on this side
- Trans: on the other side/across
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