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What are the two basic divisions of the nervous system that communicate information back and forth to each other?
- Central Nervous System (CNS)
- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
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What does the CNS consist of?
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What does the PNS consist of?
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What are the two divisions of the PNS?
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Is the sensory division of the PNS efferent or afferent?
Afferent
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Is the motor division of the PNS efferent or afferent?
Efferent
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What are the two types of sensory input?
- Somatic sensory
- Visceral sensory
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What are general somatic sensory inputs?
- Touch
- Pain
- Pressure
- Temperature
- Vibration
- Proprioception in skin, body wall, limbs
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What are special somatic sensory inputs?
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What are general visceral sensory inputs?
- Stretch
- Pain
- Temperature
- Chemical changes
- Irritation in the viscera
- Nausea and Hunger
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What are special visceral sensory inputs?
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What are the two types of motor motor outputs?
- Somatic motor
- Visceral motor
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What kind of motor output is voluntary?
Somatic
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What kind of motor output is involuntary?
Visceral
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What is general somatic motor?
Motor innervation of all skeletal muscles
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What is branchiomeric somatic motor?
Chewing muscles
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What is general visceral motor?
- Motor innervation of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
- Equivalent to autonomic nervous system (ANS)
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What are the orientation vectors?
- Rostral
- Caudal
- Dorsal
- Ventral
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What direction is rostral for quadriped vertebrates?
Towards the beak
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What direction is caudal for quadriped vertebrates?
Towards the tail
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What direction is dorsal for quadriped vertebrates?
Towards the back
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What direction is ventral for quadriped vertebrates?
Towards the belly
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What is the neuraxis like for quadriped vertebrates?
- Roughly parallel to the ground
- Consistent through the entire neuraxis
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What is the neuraxis like for bipedal primates?
- Perpendicular to the ground
- But dorsal and ventral in the brain becaome rostral and caudal in the spinal cord
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What kind of species have intermediate neuraxes that could make orientation vector terminology confusing?
Birds
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What orientation vector terms are consistent in the human brain and spinal cord?
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What orientation vector term is used for left and right?
Lateral
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What orientation vector term is used for more in the middle of the body?
Medial
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What orientation vector terms are used to mean toward and away from the head?
- Cranial: toward
- Caudal: away
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What orientation vector terms for extremities are used to mean far and close to the middle of the body?
- Distal: farther
- Proximal: closer
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What kind of plane cuts the brain dorsal/ventrally?
Horizontal plane
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What kind of plane cuts the brain rostral/caudally?
Coronal plane
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What kind of plane cuts the brain laterally?
Sagittal plane
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What are the major subdivisions of the brain?
- Telencephalon
- Diencephalon
- Mesencephalon
- Metencephalon
- Myelencephalon
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What is another name for the telencephalon?
Endbrain
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What does the telencephalon consist of?
- Cerebrum
- Basal ganglia
- Hippocampus
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What is another name for the diencephalon?
Interbrain
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What does the diencephalon consist of?
- Thalamus
- Hypothalamus
- Epithalamus
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What is the prosencephalon?
- Telencephalon
- Diencephalon
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What is another name for the prosencephalon?
Forebrain
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What is another name for the mesencephalon?
Midbrain
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What does the mesencephalon consist of?
- Colliculi (hills)
- Tectum (roof)
- Tegmentum (covering)
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What does the metencephalon consist of?
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What does the myelencephalon consist of?
Medulla oblongata
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What does the hindbrain consist of?
- Metencephalon
- Myelencephalon
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What does the brainstem consist of?
- Myelencephalon
- Pons
- Midbrain
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What is CSF?
- Cerebral spinal fluid
- Cell-free ultra filtrate of blood formed by the choroid plexuses
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What forms the CSF?
Choroid plexuses
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Where are the choroid plexuses located?
In each ventricle of the brain
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What are ventricles in the brain?
Continuous space
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What are the 1st and 2nd ventricles of the brain? Where are they located?
- Lateral ventricles
- In the cerebral hemispheres
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Where is the 3rd ventricle of the brain located?
In the diencephalon
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What is the 3rd ventricle connected to? How?
- 4th ventricle
- Via the cerebral aquaduct
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Where is the 4th ventricle located?
Between the pons & medulla oblongata
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What is the 4th ventricle of the brain continuous with?
The central canal of the spinal cord
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What is a gyrus?
Ridge/bump
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What is a sulcus?
Furrow/groove
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What is a fissure?
A deep sulcus
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What is the circle of Willis?
An arterial anastomosis between the internal carotid and posterior cerebral arteries, and the anterior cerebral arteries
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How are arterial aneurysms diagnosed?
From visual disturbances resulting from pressure on the optic chiasm/nerves
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Where do 80% of arterial aneurysms occur?
At the circle of Willis
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What kind of issue creates visual signs similar to arterial aneurysms, leading to early diagnosis?
Tumors or cysts on the hypothalamus and pituitary gland
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What do you see if you pull the frontal lobe and temporal lobe apart at the lateral fissure?
Insular cortex
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What do cortical areas do?
- Sensory and motor processing
- Cognitive functions
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What is the homunculus?
Somatosensory and motor maps
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Who was Wilder Penfield?
- 1891-1976
- Mapped the homunculus during surgeries for focal motor epilepsy
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What is in the deep cerebrum?
The basal ganglia (nuclei)
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What are the two parts of the corpus striatum?
- Caudate nucleus
- Lentiform nucleus
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What is included in the basal ganglia?
- Corpus striatum
- Thalamus
- Fibers of corona radiata
- Internal capsule
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What fibers come out of the corpus striatum?
Fibers of corona radiata
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Which fibers run deep to lentiform nucleus?
Internal capsule
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What happens when there is abnormal functioning of the basal ganglia?
- Several movement disorders
- Parkinson's disease
- Huntington's chorea
- Tic disorders (Tourette syndrom, OCD, etc.)
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What are the two parts of the lentiform nucleus?
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What is included in the epithalamus?
- Pineal gland
- Stria medullaris
- Habenula
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What does the greek "epi" mean?
On or above
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What does the greek "hypo" mean?
Under
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What is the thalamus?
- Sensory and pre-motor relay nuclei
- Target of basal ganglia and descending cortical feedback
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What does dura mater mean?
"Tough mother"
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What are the 3 meningeal layers?
- Dura mater
- Arachnoid
- Pia mater
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What does arachnoid mean?
Spiderweb-like
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What does pia mater mean?
"Soft mother"
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Describe the dura mater meningeal layer.
- Forms flat partitions
- Falx cerebri
- Tentorium cerebelli
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What is the purpose of forming flat partitions in the dura mater?
- Provides stabilization and support for the brain
- Limits excessive movement
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Where is the falx cerebri located?
Positioned in the central sulcus, between hemispheres
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What does the tentorium cerebelli do?
Separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum
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Describe the arachnoid meningeal layer.
- The arachnoid is not always observed as a discrete membrane
- Rather as the inner lining of the dura
- Does not extend down to the sulci
- The space beneath it is filled with CSF and criss-crossed with a spiderweb-like matrix of fine fibers that led to its name
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Describe the pia mater meningeal layer.
- Delicate, highly vascularized membrane
- Clings tightly to brain over every sulcus and gyrus
- Hard to separate from the brain
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What is subdural space?
- Potential space
- Between the dura mater and arachnoid
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What is the subarachnoid space?
- Real space
- Filled with CSF
- Between the arachnoid and pia mater
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What are 3 functions of the CSF?
- Buoyancy
- Cushion
- Communication (still doing research)
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What does choroid plexus mean?
- Choroid- colored (b/c of the dark appearance)
- Plexus- network
- Network of colored capillaries
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Where are choroid plexuses located?
In the roof of each ventricle
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What does CSF move through to get from the lateral ventricles to the 3rd ventricle?
Interventricular foramen
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What does CSF move through to get from the 3rd ventricle to the 4th?
Cerebral aqueduct
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What does aperture mean?
It's like a window or opening
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How does cerebral spinal fluid exit the 4th ventricle?
Through apertures
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Where does CSF go onces it's reabsorbed?
Returns to venous blood
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How oftend oes the circulation of CSF occur?
Replaced every 6-8 hours
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How many choroid plexus exist in each ventricle?
One
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What is the central canal?
Fluid-filled space connected to the cerebral ventricals
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What is grey matter in the spinal cord?
Dominated by neuronal cell bodies and neuroglia cells
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What does grey matter generally look like in spinal cords?
- "H" or "butterfly" shaped
- Horns- anterior (ventral), lateral, posterior (dorsal) (sensory & motor nuclei)
- Grey commissure- axons crossing from one side to other
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What is white matter in the spinal cord?
- Large number of myelinated and unmyelinated axons
- Contain tracts: sensory or motor
- Columns
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How is white matter arranged?
Arranged in columns of ascending and descending axons
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What are tracts?
Axons in the same direction
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What two parts of the spinal cord are thicker?
- Groups of neurons that innervate parts of the body that have more muscle activity?
- Ex. fingers and toes have more muslce movement than the stomach
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What is the gross anatomy of the spinal cord like?
- Similar to the brain in terms of layers
- Has dorsal/ventral columns (white matter)
- Dorsal/ventral horns (grey matter)
- Spinal canal
- Spinal nerve- Dorsal root ganglia, ventral root, dorsal root
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On what side does the spinal nerve send motor information?
Ventral
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On what side does the spinal nerve send sensory information?
Dorsal
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In what direction do sensory tracts go?
From sacral to cervical
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In what direction do motor tracts go?
From trunk to extremity
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