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What are the ways that we define a species?
Distinctive atributes, genetic similarity, and naturally breeding.
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Lumpers tend to do what with Taxon of animals?
Make subspecies
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Splitters tend to do what with taxon of animals?
Make Species
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What are subspecies?
Races, ectypes, strains, and breeds
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The general one age concept incorporates multiple criteria:
Looks or morphology, study of cell structure, kaaryotyping, genomics and proteins.
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Arises from molecular action (genes and proteins)
Structure (morphology)
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The biological species concept is defined as?
An interbreeding population.
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Reproductive isolating mechanisms prevents interbreeding. What are these?
Barrier between interbreeding, arrises for genetic change, or prezygotic vs postzygotic.
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A seperation by geography. Can be a matter of physiological tolerance. Due to physiology ot timing of reproduction.
Habitat isolation
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Another isolation du to behavior signaling breeding. Mating dances, songs, pheromones
Behavioral isolation
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Anatomican differences preventing mating. can be applied to plants too.
Mechanical isolation
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Gametes do not unite. Proteins on sperm and egg to not match.
Gametical isolation
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Zygot made but then something goes wrong. egged do not develop past early embryonic stages. Hybrids are not successful.
Post-Zygote mechanims
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Offsprings of hybrids have developmentmental abnormalities or are sterile. AKA advanced generation breakdown.
Hybrid breakdown.
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Pre-zygotic mechanisms summary:
Habitat, temporal, behavioral, mechanical, gametic, and hybrid problems.
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A population diverges into two or more species.
Cladoogensesis
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Family tree of phylogenetic trees>
Cladogram.
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Gradually change from one to another. Kinda like a V in evolution
Gradualism.
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Branches like a tree, or like a family tree.
Punctuated equlibrium
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What are the types of speciation:
Allopatric or Sympatric
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Type of speciation means the species separated while living within the same area
Sympatric
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Tyoe of speciation mean the species separated while living in different areas
Allopatric
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THis assumes the evolution was due to natural selection. Also is the same as cladogenesis.
Adaptive radiation
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Aympatric stuff is more due to?
mutattions
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This is from non-disjunction of chromosomes in cell division.
Polyploidy
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Mean a polyploid organism got at least on of its extra set of chromosomes from a parent of a different species.
Alloploid
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Studying evolutionary relationshipd by looking at comparative development.
Evo-Devo
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Genes control:
How and when cells die, cell migration, cell specialization
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Changes in the timing or relative rates of development o different tissues within an organism that can be its offspring.
Heterochrony
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These are bacteria and Archaea
Prokaryotes
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What did the prokaryotes used to be called?
Monera
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What is the typical size of bacteria?
1um
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Have curcular chromosomes and introns are rare
Prokaryotes
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What are some major differences between Bacteria and Archaea?
DNA sequences, promoters, rna polymerases, rRNA sequences and initiator tRNA
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Archaea and bacteria have these in common.
Cytoplasm traits, his tones, promoters, and methionine as intitiator.
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These have cells walls of unquies compound. No true peptidoglycan, not all are extremeophiles.
Archaea
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This is the domain Bacteria.
Eubacteria
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What are the shapes of bacteria?
Bacillus, Helical (Vibro, Spirilla), coccus, and vibrio
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(a Phylum) Gram negative heterotrophs.
Proteobacteria
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(a phylum) aerobic, photosynthetic, historically Calle blue-green algae. Chloroplast ancestor. Have intracellular membrane tubules caked thylakoids organized chlorophyll.
Cyanobacteria
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Used for orientation. mineral manetic enclosed membrane pouches.
Magnetosomes.
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Biofilms aloows for attachment and created and ecosystem. Protects the cell from emvironment.
Capsules
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Whata are the motility mechanisms of bacteria?
Flagella and Pili
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these help move bacteria by twitching or gliding across the surfaces. look like cilia
Pili
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Tough protein coat created inside the cell protects DNA and key cell components. Unusal dormant
Endospore
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Bacterial cells divide by?
Binary Fission
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Bacteria that love light enery, inorganic carbon source
Photoautotrophs
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Bacteria that love heat and chemical energy inorganic carbon source
Chemoautotrophs
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Bacteria that get ATP from light but dont fix CO2
Photoheterotrophs
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bacteria that must get both energy and carbon source from existing organic molecules.
Chemoheterotrophs.
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What does Aerobe mean?
need O2
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What does anaerobe mean?
doesnt like O2.
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What does facultative mean?
Prefers aerobics, but can use pathways when needed. Indifferent and can tolerate OS
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What does Aerotolerant mean?
Anaerobe that can survive O2 exposure but does not need it.
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Means dead and gone
Extinct
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Means alive and well
Extant
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This is describing, naming, and classification
Taxonomy
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THis is the study of evolutionary relationships in inform taxonomy
Systematics
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Taxonmomy hierarchy
Life, domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class , order, family, genus, species
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THese are unique to prokaryotes:
No cell compartmentalization, circular chrom., nucleotide divide, by binary fission, intron are rare, 70 robosome, operant, no capping on mRNA
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Initiate translation w/ firmylmethione. Unique promoter. Ester-linked membrane lipids like eukaryotes
Bacteria
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Use methionine and translation initiate like eukaryotes. Use TATA box and ether-linked membrane
Archaea
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Binomial Nomenclature
Genus and species
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Means changes over time
Anagenesis
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Means the species has split
Cladogenesis
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Means that some descendants arent included in the clade
Paraphyletic
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Means the clade includes descendants from different ancestrial lines.
Polyphyletic
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THis is the miscellaneous file for eukaryotes. most unicellular. Monopyletic (no common ancestor)
Protists
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Groups that belong together and have a common ancestor.
Paraphyletic
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Groups that donot belong together and no common ancestor.
Monopyletic
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Protists algae, protopyta, all produce O2 and are aerobes
Photoautotrophs.
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Protists that are protozoa and protomycota. Animal or fungi like
Chemoheterotrophs
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Protists that do both photosynthesis and heterotrophy
Mixotrophs
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Protists that can absorb very small food particles: digestion external.
Osmotrophs
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Protists that are mircoscopic floating or swimming life. Bacteria protista and invertebrates are labeled this as weel
Plankton
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Mucilage-connected communities attached to underwater surfaces
Peripyton
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Seaweeds - mostly multicellular
Macroalgae
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Thes use numerous tiny hairs, usually in rows or tufts.
Ciliates
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These are protists whose cytoskeleton changes ce;; shape, creates a pseudopodia. Not a true ameba, slow.
Ameboid
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These protista secrete slime. Poorly understood movement.
Gliders
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On protists: (stigma) light detecting molecules located in a swollen region at the base of a flagellum
Eyespot.
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On protists: Large mass extra copies of mDNA inside the mitochondrion.
Kinetoplast
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In protists: compressed proteins that elongate into spear-shaped projectiles shot from cells as defense.
Trichocysts
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In protists: protectuve coats that allow dormacy during bad times.
Cysts
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Protists that have a self defence mechanism agrainst grazers
Toxins.
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What are some spuergroups for protista?
Excavata, Alveolata, Opisthokonta, and Stramenopila
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Protist supergroup: Early bracnhc, feeding froove aids ingestion.
Axcavata
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Protists supergroup: Have air sacks. Ciliates, gliding, dinoflagellates.
Alveolata
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Protists supergroup: Leads to animals, fungi, and related protists.
Opisthokonta
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heterokont are algae with chloroplasts surrounded by four membranes, which are counted from the outermost to the innermost membrane
Stramenopila
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Distinguishing traits of eukaryotic supergroups:
Plastid structure, plastid specialization, accessory pigments, flagella type, and DNA
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The taxon called Myocata
Fungi
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Characteristics of fungi.
Eukaryotes, osmotrophs, chitin in cell wall, food stored as glycogen, mitosis within nuclear enveloipe
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Single cells. Maybe a life stage of dimorphic/biphasic fungi
Yeasts
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Single flage;l;ated cells link fungi to opisthokona supergroup. grow in simple branched filaments
Chytrids
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What is the anatatomy of fungi?
Septate (most) and Aseptate (early forms)
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is a long, branching filamentous structure of a fungus, oomycete, or actinobacterium
Hyphae
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Mass of hyphae or a visable colony of fungi
Mycelium
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Mycelium is commonly called?
Mold
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Common names to fungi:
Mildew, rust, smuts, blights, scabs, mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs, stinkhorns, morels, and truffles.
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The kind of fungi that lives on the side of trees.
Bracket fungi and shelf fungi
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What do all molds have in common?
Tthey all have Hyphae and create mycelium
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Current cliassification of Fungi is based on what?
Sex life
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How do fungi mate?
By Hyphae mating. (except in water)
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Fungi mating: Normal plasmogamy, delayed keryogamy is common, and result in heterokaryotic dikaryotic cells. AKA: cells fuse, some time can go and then the genes combine, and then two in one.
Hyphae syngamy
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HYphae mating is followed by an aerial growth to support spore dispersal.
Fruiting body
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Produce ascospores in ascocarps. Spore pods and shafts
Ascomycetes
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Produce basidiospores in basida. Spores on a stalk
Basidiomycetes
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No sexual spores known, form unusually large multi-uncleared spores
Glomeromycota
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All groups of fungi form asexual sprees in?
Sporangia
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The hyphae grow rapidly using what?
Osmotic pressure
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To help move around what does the Hyphae secrete?
Digestive juices
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When fungi feed on the dead tissues, we call them the same term we'd use for bacteria doing the same job in the ecosystem
decomposers, saprophytes, saprobes
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When fungi feed and grow into living tissue and begin digestion we call them?
Pathogens
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What do we call fungi that grows outside of cells
Ectomycorrhizae
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What doe we call fungi that grow inside of cells?
Endomycorrizae
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These fungi live inside the plant cells and were once thought to be parasitic because they feed on plant sugars, but plants with them do better
Endophytes
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How do fungi defend themselves?
They create alfatoxins = Liver-destroyinh poisons
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This is a partnership between fungi and Algae
Lichen
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95% of lichens arise from?
Ascomycota
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A single cell of fungi is called?
Yeast
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How can you tell between a prokay or Eukarya cell?
The Nucleaus and size.
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All lichens are actually a multipartner association, as non-photosynthetic bacteria (actinomycetes are also part of the microbiota, paying rent by?
Making antibiotics
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THis gives off that earthy smell.
Actinomycetes
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What are the most basic features hat plants share w/ green algae?
Chlorophyll A and B. Cell walls built out oif cellulose. Cytoikinesis.
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There are two types of molecular bodies for plants.
Haploids and diploids.
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The Diploid individual
Sporophytes
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thehaploid individual
gametophytes
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One Zygote doing meiosis = ?
4 spore
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Gametangia:
Archegonia and antheridia
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This encloses a single egg
Archegonia
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This produces many sperm. can swim in algae, mosses and allies, ferns and allies.
Antheridia
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Zygotes undergo development into embryo while still within parent tissue.
Matrotophy (land plants are embryophytes)
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A Sporophyte enclosed and sheltered by maternal tissues. A critical innovation in plants
The embryo
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Outer cells have dense cell walls to protect spores. reduce desiccation, barrrier to microbes and UV block
Sporagia
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Openings in the cuticle for gas exchange
Stomata
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Xyoglucans: Hemicelluloses, binds w/ cellulose, increases sturdiness.
plant cell wall
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Simplistic plants
Bryophytes "mosslike", liverworts, Mosses, and Hornworts
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they are very primitive conducting tissue, cell-to-cell. Considered non-vascular plants. No true roots, has rhizoids, no true leaves, has flattened single-cell layer, and no true stems.
Bryophytes et al
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Bryophyte 6k species, single-celled called shizoid, single thallus, proto-stomata = pore
Liverworts
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Bryophyte 12k multi celled shizoid, port-leaf, "stem" may branch. Peat
Mosses
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100 species, look similar to liverworts, most have true stomata.
Hornworts
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Allows for specialization into root vs leaves, by creating transportation systems for sharing resources.
Vacularization
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Specialized vascular cells. conduct water and dissolved minerals. constructed w/liginin
Tracheids
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Vascular plants =
Tracheophytees
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Allows for specialization into root vs leaves, by creating transportation systems for sharing resources
Lycopytes
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12k species, roots, stems, and leaves, w/ branching vascularizatiun. (Euphyllophytes) (true Leaf Plants) modern are ferns but tree forms did exist.
Pteridophytes
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Everplant other thean mosses and ferns are
spermatophytes (seed plants)
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Every seed plant protects its mega gametophyte in a
ovule
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Plants protect its micro gametophyte witha
pollen capsule
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A plant ovule started a sporagium with a single megaspore. It develops into a small female gametophyte that produces an
egg
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Arises from micros press within sporangia. Make gametophyte is encapsulated for travel. The point of the pollen capsule is protected travel for the male gametophyte.
A pollen grain
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Pollen grain reaches egg containing structure. Male gametophyte extends a pollen tube to egg to achieve fertilization by sperm cell. (No more swimming)
Pollination
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What are the ecological values of seeds?
Stored food for embryo, potential for dormancy, modification for dispersal
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Naked Seeds. Female gametophyte tissues becomes food for seed. Seed not fully enclosed. Pollen enclosed sperm. Pines are the most common Began 250-65 mill years ago. Ended with a bang.
Gymnsperms
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300 species, mostly tropical. Seeds lack dormancy. Fern-like leaves.use scent to attract beetles as pollinators to male and female cones. =pollination symbiosis.Pollen is carried by battle from male to female. Upon contact w/ ovule, fall lasted sperm exit the pollen grain and swim to egg. They are famous for having coralloid roots that harbor mutualists can nitrogen-fixing Cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria also fix nitrogen.
Cycads
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1 species unique leaf. Slow maturing, very long-lived (>2000 yrs) very hardy. Equally mature after 25-30 years. Wind pollinated. Pollen produces a pollen tube that absorbs ovule tissue, production flagellated sperm after several months. Sperm finds egg -> seed forms.
Ginkgoes
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500 species. Tracheid with torus "valve", resin ducts. There are a variety of strobili. Male and female cones; note positions. Wind pollinated. All strobili share basic features, likely due to convergent evolution. Wind borne pollen. Sperm lack flagella. Needle or scale like. Adapted to colder drier climates.
Conifers
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A very diverse group. 70 species. Bracts around ovules, vessel members.
Gnetophyla
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Gymnosperms
Cycads, Ginkgoes, conifers, gnetophyla
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Anthophyta or angiosperms. Flowers, endosperm, enclosed seed, vessels. Dominant in most terrestrial ecosystems during last 65 million years. Pistil aka carpel. Stigma style and ovary femal associated. What's the stamen: Anther and filament. Perinatal =sepals+petals (tepals) more modified leaves. Modification related to pollination strategy. wind dispersal on pollen - no tepals.
Flowering plants
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Animal pollinators
insects, birds, reptiles, mammals
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Seed dispersal
animals, wind, water
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from a second sperm fertilizing a fused pair of gamete cells, resulting in a trip loid tissue. Aka double fertilization.
Endosperm
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Secondary metabolites
Terpenes, phenols, alkaloids
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Phenols
pigments, flavors, antioxidants.
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Alkaloids
Affect animals nervous system Caffine, nicotine, THC, cocaine.
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An endophyte that protect plants form pathogens and take poart in photosynthesis. Association between fungal hyphae and plant root. Found in at least 80% of land plants. Enhances uptake of water and minerals by plant 10x -100x. Costs plant up to 20% of its photosynthetic output.
Mycorrhizae
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