nutrition part 1

energy, protein, vitamins, minerals, essential fatty acids

• digestive- fecal
• metabolic- urine, methane, heat

meat, milk, eggs, companion animals

adult

• stage of development
• digestive physiology
• dentition
• feeding behavior

• large fermentation vessel
• microflora
• degrade plant fiber
• products absorbed

• small intestine
• endogenous enzymes
• nutrient abosorption

• large intestine
• further microbial activity
• products absorbed
• resorption water, minerals

salivary amylase -startch

pepsin - protein

• trypsin - protein
• chymotrypsin - protein
• pancreatic lipase - triglyceride
• pancreatic alpha-amylase - starch
• ribonuclease - RNA
• Deoxyribonuclease - DNA

• aminopeptidase - peptides
• dipeptidase - dipeptides
• maltase - maltose
• lactase - lactose

• utilise plant fiber
• essentially grazers
• herbivores

• cannot use plant fiber to a great extent
• prefer less complex materials (lower fiber)

• hind gut fermenters
• horse, rabbit

mainly to the front, rumen occupies considerable space 70-19-11

• fairly evenly distributed, both endogenous digestion and some hind-gut fermentation
• (cat )-very limited hind-gut fermentation

extensive caecal fermentation

• bacteria 10^9ml content (>60 species);
• protozoa (10^6 ml content);
• fungi
• influenced by diet

• VFA's (4 kg per day) -main acetate
• microbial protein
• gasses - (burp) 30 l/hr; 40% co2 30-40% CH4

• pH 5.5-6.5
• VFA's rapidly absorbed,
• salivary buffers (phosphate, bicarbonate) w/o usual anitibotic

• vegetative -leaf and stem - tillers hard autumn grazing
• clover-high nitrogen
• ensiled whole crop cereals
• alfalfa

• flowers (inflorescence) reduced nutritonal value/ high fiber
• reduced mineral intake - Ca - milk fever
• poor growth
• build-up of pasture worms (zero grazing better)

• no air (anaerobic) pack down
• rapid fermentation
• reduce moisture
• pH 4 (low pH = pathogens)

• uncontrolled fermentation
• variable conditions
• pathogenic micro-organisms
• toxic chemicals w/ bacterial toxins
• excess acidity

• e. coli -diarrhea, mastitis
• listeria monocytogenes-listeriosis, silage eye
• fungal spores - respiratory distress
• botulism
• cryptosporidium parvum
• actinomycetes
• penicillim roqueforti

• animal manure spread on grass crop
• slow acidification -<sugar, >water
• low concentration of undissociated lactic acid in silage
• low acid, high NH3, high mineral concentration

• contaminated soil
• >4.5 pH
• oxygen infiltration
• mold
• mostly on outer layer of bale

• silage contaminated w/ carcasses
• wet silage >4.5 pH

• high WSC in crop
• low DM at harvest
• low buffering capacity
• innoculant additive
• short cut
• low pH < 4.0
• rapidly digested carbs in supplement feed

• >intake of minerals
• low milk fat
• drinking urin
• straw
• change in silage intake
• regurgitation
• diarrhea, hyperventilation, lethargy, bloat

• particulate feeders,
• crop = storage > esophagus capacity, mucus
• proventriculus-mucus, HCL, pepsinogen
• gizzard-grit, grinds

• large molars and premolars
• grind food into smaller pieces

combinations - proportions depend on main components of diet

large incisors and canines

• horse and rabbit
• large number of small meals

• several hours at pasture
• rumination

• variation
• large - large meal every couple of days
• small - a little bit now and again
• prefer warmer food

• variation
• canines - large meals occasionally and regular daily meals

• relate input to output- performance health
• quality optimum input, biological response, economics

• 1. based upon sound scientific concepts
• 2. allow prediction of responses to a given intake
• 3. easy to use
• 4. sufficiently accurate to allow substitution of one feedstuff for another

• moving from 1->2 losses in digestion, absorption, assimilation of dietary energy and nutrients
• - increasingly more a function of the animal and less a charateristic of the diet

(need a diet that does both)

• widely used, not effective, based on chemical constituents (proximate analysis)
• organic matter(CP, CF, NFE, EE), inorganic matter(ash)
• sum of total constituents
• total * digestibility(%)=content of digestible component

• 1. assumes- total nitrogen, all N is protein
• 2. variables in method of chemical determination (solvent, time of reflux)
• 3. CP- complex carbs are dissolved, suppose to represent non-digestible component (does have a low amount)
• 4. digestible component? determens difference =errors
• NOT scientific - does not predict response

• what animal actually requires
• energy (not a nutrient) yielding potential
• protein
• minerals
• vitamins
• essential fatty acids

Ca:P

selenium:vit E

vit E : linoleic acid

response to dietary protein influenced by presence of energe

• overlooked, simplest
• cheap
• moisture content = deterioration
• fermentation, mold, mycotoxicoses, mycotoxins

• NDF- insoluble in neutral detergent
• lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose "plant cell wall"

• ADF -insolube in acid detergent
• lignin, cellulose

NDF-ADF=hemicelluloses "active plant fiber"

• glucose- 15.6
• lipid- 39.4
• protein- 20.1
• energy potential depends on degree the components are digested

• protein
• lipid- plant oils, animal fats
• carbs(starch, sugars, fiber)- cereal greains, molasses, forages

energy released when a dietary raw material or complete feed is completely combusted in an atmosphere of oxygen

• energy available following digestion
• DE=GE-fecal energy

• energy retained
• ME=GE-(fecal=urinary+methane)

• energy available for maintenance and production
• NE=GE-(fecal+urinary+methane+heat increment)

• Feces - ruminants most loss
• heat incriment- non ruminants most loss
• urine methane- lots in fowl
• swine & fowl- highest production
• - ruminants do utilize low quality materials that the others can't use

Net energy- difficult to measure, depends on multiple variables

glucose

• volatile fatty acids
• utilize glucose>VFA
• NE from DE small>large

• need fecal and urinary output(~3%)
• hard to separte metabolic and digestice losses
• ME = poultry
• AME= apparent ME- needs endogenous losses (cells, bact, enzymes)
• MEn = corrected to zero nitrogen retention
• high losses of methane in ruminants = ME

• counts variable losses of ingested dietary energy, not urine
• inaccurate w/ different conditions
• DE = Pigs

• easy,
• does not count any losses during digestion and metabolism
• alone - poor for formulation of diet

high amounts of lactobacilli = acidosis

starch, fructans =fermented to VFA's

• fermented to VFA = very complex, inert
• NSP: by pass, coated so pass through rumen
• cellulose, pectins, hemicelluloses, pentosans

Unsaturated- depress DMI, impair fiber digestion, toxic to bacteia, eats less, impair rumen fermetation

Saturated <6% - doesn't affect DMI, rumen inert, Stearic acid (digestible) decrease fat accumulation in liver, improves repro perfomance

• Acetate( highest)(VFA)
• Butrate (VFA)
• lactate -> concentrate -> propionate(VFA)
• succinate -> forage -> proprionate(VFA)

• NE= ME*k(efficiency - maintenance)
• k = maintenance - .72
• lactation - .62
• growth - .62

• increases acetate: good for milk quality, precursor for milf fat
• in: long grass, silage, rolled cereals, dried grass, concentrates

measure digestibility/ metabloism/ nutrient balance allowing precise data on value to be dtermined

comparatively easy to determine the measurements

• can't be evaluated independently
• rate of inclusion to a basal diet- be where compund diets are at

lengthy, expensive, may compromise animal welfare

• -non ruminants can't digest fiber (negative correlation between DE and "fiber)
• -Crude Fiber does not fraction out fiber that has nutritional relvance BUT still good results
• -emperical nature of predictions

• -a chemical and will have different effects depending on the origin
• - har d to derive chemical measurements w/ biological relevance
• -measuring chemical and biological variation has to be done in separate samples within the same species
• -adults digest fiber better (need to evaluate different ages also)

• -use several chemical variables
• -usually confined to compund diets
• - increase in % in chemical components

• -chemical bonds (C, O, H, N) absorb different wave lengths
• -scan feed sample allows rapid estimate of composition which can then predict ME

• rumen fluid used to digest forage sample
• ME = .16 DOMD%

• (CH2O)x
• glucose - hexose

• 2 carb monomers, dipeptides
• sucrose = glucose + fructose
• Lactose = glucose + galactose
• Maltose = glucaose + glucose

Starch - polymer of glucose, alpha bonds (1-4), stored in plants, amylase breaks down (1-4)

amylopectin - polymer of glucose(1-4 & 1-6) less common

• Cellulose: polymer of glucose, beta (1-6), most common, plant structure, little fermentation
• Hemicelluloses: some hind gut fermentation, polymers of hexoses and pentoses
• Pectins: not digested, polymers of galacturonic acid
• oligosaccharides: glucose, fructose & galactose, bonds can't be broken by enzymes

Named as a polysaccharide: nondigestible, fermentable, but NOT a carb but phenolic based compound

• how plant stores P
• binds minerals
• needs phytase to break off minerals when plants need, can be added to diets
• P not readily available for animal - excrete in feces which leads to polution

• pentosans, hexosans, mixed, cellulose
• -when bond together make it harder for fermentation

• Pentoses: Xylose, Arabinose
• Hexose: glucose, galactose, mannose
• -most common, less complex the more soluble

• cellulose
• hemicellulose
• pectins

• Beta glucan- cant break down
• -dissolves in water and becomes sticky
• ok for adult pigs but not for birds

• it does not simulate what really happens in the GI
• - sticky stomach from barley

• raffinose: sucrose-galactose (usually low)
• stachyose: sucrose-galactose-galactose (high in soy)
• verbascose: sucrose-galactose-galactose-galatose

• starch, simple sugars- stored within cell
• -main enzyme amylase (glucose)
• -stomach pH too low for digestion
• to much starch in caecum = diarrhea enteropathogens (coliforms)

rabbits eating their fecal pellets so that they can digest the fiber in the stomach b/c encased in mucus and increases the pH of stomach

• no endogenous enzymes present
• -limited digestion in small intestine (bacteria)
• -fermented to VFAs in caecm

in mammal milk, small fat globs, lactase in juviniles to digest

• saliva, inactive in stomach, in pancreas
• - digest starch, dextrin

• alpha- oligo- glucosidase, galactosidase, fructofuranosidase
• digests- maltose, dextrins, lactose, sucrose

• major energy-yielding component in diets for non-ruminants
• -complex molecule
• -crystalline in raw state = less digestion (peas greatest)
• -needs processing

stressfull, damage to vilia, sever decrease in digestive enzymes for 10-12 days

• slow release in SI - beneficial to poultry
• if not in SI goes to LI for fermentation
• Good: more acid, reduced pathogen
• Bad: microb proliferation, diarrhea, death, dehydatration

• -diverse group of compounds, not soluble in water, only non-polar organic solvents
• -related to fatty acids

• long chain carbon atoms with terminal methly and carboxy group
• saturated - single bonds (solid) animal fats
• unsaturated - double bonds (liquid)

long chains and highly unsaturated, 4-5 double bonds

highly unsatuated

• simple > fat/oil
• compund > phosphoglycerides > lecithin / cephalins
• > glycolipids > glucolipids / galactolipids
• (cell membranes)

• sphingomyelins
• cerebrosides
• waxes
• steroids
• terpenes
• prostaglandins (cell function)

glycerol (back bone)+ 3 fatty acids = water + triglyceride

• lecithin: emuslified fat in nature, phospholipid
• sterol cholesterol: important in diet
• cholecalciferol Vit D3: lipid

pancreatic lipase, emulsification, micelle formation, droplet absorption

non-polar, poor solubitity in bile salt solution, limited entry into micellar phase

• polar solutes, swelling amphiphiles
• - high solubility in bile salt, enter micelle
• -promot of non-polar solutes into micelle phase

• unsaturated > saturated
• Tri > free fatty acids
• medium chain > long chain
• interactions between fats of differing saturation

• - limited bile and pancreatic lipase production
• - gastric lipase (serous glands of tongue)
• FA absorbed in stomach
• some TAG & DAG goes to SI
• hard to get fat from dry diet

• oil drop coated in bile
• pancreatic co-lipase absorbed onto surface of droplet
• acts as anchor for pancreatic lipase
• - hydrolyses of TAG/DAG(Ca++ needed)

• molecules arranged in specific alignment
• lipases act at surface

• micelle contact w/ membranes
• - energy dependent (FA binding protein) favor unsaturated
• - bile salts absorbed further on down the SI (recirculated by enter hepatic circulation)

• - growing and endurance animals need high fat (high in energy) double than carbs
• - can break down into ketone bodies which are toxic
• - chemical structure has major effect on energy-yielding value

• degree of composition
• - saturation
• - chain length (14-20 carbons)
• - triglyceride / free fatty acid

• Linoleic acid - 18:2 N6 (higher content, less firm)
• Linolenic acid - 18:3 N3
• - can't be interconverted, or synthesized from other fats
• - cell messengers
• - prostaglandins
• - precursors

• desaturase - add double bond
• elongase - adds 2 carbons
• both N3 and 6 start with desaturase then elongase and switch off

• compete for enzymes
• Ex - oleic can create deficiency of EFA
• efficiencies further up the path are much better

• 20:5
• only in animal and fish sources, most inefficient diet so need this in diet
• - intermediate

• involved in chain elongation and desauturation
• Zinc deficiency: can reduce delta desaturase acitivity
• exacerbated by: high genetic potential, high Ca(inhibits Zn absorption), fats which inhibit EFA metabloism
• (becoming more previlant)

• 5:1 ratio of N6 - N3
• - better performance, reproduction, immune status, appearance
• - need high level of antioxidants to prevent oxidation
• - long chains are unstable
• - don't use PV to assess oxidation?

• dietary < 1/3 total energy intake
• saturated < 1/3 total fat intake
• MUFA:PUFA 2:1

• more unstable cooked and fresh
• more oxidiation - healthier, can become rancid
• softer fat- harder to cut
• metabloic problems when digested

• oxidative stability - TBA number, volatile products
• flavor/aroma - during stoage and production

• interaction with vit E
• PUFA L E above threshold (healthier) but might break down to early in storage and cooking

Ca, P, K, Na, Cl, Mg, S and others

• Fe, I, Zn, CU, Mn, Se, Co, Mo, Cr
• current accurate list

• co-factors in enzymes (Mn in TCA cycle)
• Electrolytes (Na, K, Cl)
• Components of other molecules (Co-B12, I-thyroxine, Fe-hemaglobin)
• structural role (Ca, P, Mg = bone)

• Na: cation of extracellular fluid, transport across membrane, maintain membrane potential (plasma)
• Cl: anion of extracellular fluid
• K: cytosol, membrane action potentials

• important for ions, hormones
• need for angiotensin ll and arginine
• affects - CNS, Liver, Kidney

Na deficiency: kidney>renin>liver> aldosterone ll>adrenals>aldosterone =Renal excretion of K and re-sorption of Na

• bone mineralisation - hydroxyapatite, non-crystalline phosphates, calcium carbonates
• Ca: muscle contraction, neuronal transmission, blood clot, enzyme activit
• P: phospholipids, ATP creatine phosphate, phosphorylation, phosphate buffers

• Ca deficiency increase D3
• Ca excess decrease in D3
• CaBP dependent on active for of D3

Hypo more common: secretion of parathyroid Hormone, kidney, syn of D3, increase intestinal Ca absorption, or renal resorption of Ca = mobilisation of bone Ca

• 1. secretion of calcitonin = no renal Ca resorption
• 2. inhibition of PTH, Kidney, decrease in D3 = low intestinal absorptionof Ca
• 3. secretion of Calcitonin CT = stop mobilisation of bone Ca

• high Ca after giving birth = difficult standing head to side, staggering
• - give oral Ca salts (borogluconate)

small quanitites, to much = toxic

• in hemaglobin 2/3, proteins and co-factors
• 1/4 stored in bone marrow
• rest in muscle and enzymes
• Ferrous sulphate and chloride - good
• ferric oxide and ferrous carbonate - poor

• deficiency in foraging animals
• piglets - IM post partum ferrpus sulphate
• sow milk low levels
• loss at navel

• function of enzymes (ferroxidase = Cu trans + Fe oxid)
• cytochrome oxidase = ATP synthesis
• Tyrosinase = melanin
• monoamine oxidase = neurotransmitters

• associated with enzymes
• - active site of component (carbonic anhydrase, alcohol dehydrogenase, superoxide dismutase)
• -structural element of proteins recognize DNA sequences
• -gene expression/metablism of proteins

• antioxidant with Vit E, regenerates E
• Co-factor in Glutathione peroxidase- protect from oxidative damage
• - co-factor for thyroid hormones

ultimate response in the animal, unclear as to how much is available

expensive, need for bone growth and strength, give to animals that are going to be kept for breeding stock

• - organic, required in often in small amounts
• - can't be synthesised by the animals (ex. Vit C)
• - performance promoting effect

specific molecule w/ a precise metabloic function

• A: sight, epithelial cells
• D: regulats intestion absorption & metabof Ca
• E: anti-oxidant, immunity
• K: synthesis of compunds involved in coagulation

• Retinol - 7 isomers, trans has greatest activity
• percursor - Beta carotene
• cats: can't transform Beta carotene into Vitamin A, need the precursor, can't regulate Vit A uptake = toxicity

• retina - poor sight in dark, blood concentrations, responds fast to treatment
• Xerophthalmia- drying of cornea, common cause of blindness
• stage 1: xerosis, dryness of conjunctiva
• stage 2: keratomalacia, softening of the cornea & 2nd infections, scarring

pre-vitamin D3: only 1 hydroxy group, most active form

• D3- 2 hydroxy groups, most active form
• -UV radiation D3 is formed from 7 dehydrocholesterol
• deficiencies = bone deformaties
• birds and furry animals get from oil on fur/feathers & consumed

• alpha most active
• antioxidant-lipid oxidation, cell membranes
• stimulation of immune response, antibody production, meat stability
• Selenium interactions are complementary (free radicals)
• natural not as stable, commercial are protected

• anti-hemorhagic, K1 & K2
• coagulation factors - prothrombin, prconvertin, antihemophilic factor B, Stuart Factor
• Bone metabloism, vascular biology
• deficiency - longer to clot, rodenticides block K1

• water soluble
• protein, carb, lipid, metabolism
• enzyme systems 1. transfer of molcular groups, 2. oxido-reduction reactions (thiamine to Niacin, B6 to B2)

• Niacin - NAD
• Riboflavin - FAD, FMN
• pantothenic acid - co-enzyme A
• Folic acid - tetrahydrofolate

• thiamine - aldehydes - pyruvate dehydrogenase
• NAD - H ion - alcohol dehydrogenase
• FAD - H ion - succinic dehydrogenase
• Coenzyme A - Acyl group - acetly CoA carboxylase

goes to Krebs cycle, steroids, hormones, bile salts, cholesterol, acetoacetic acid, acetylations, acetylcholine, detoxifications, mucopolysaccharides

• deficiency - nervous system and heart b/c need for their high amount of oxidation
• poultry- anorexia, unsteady gate, stargazing
• ruminants - listless, going in circles,muscle tremors, consuming ferns

• deficiency - disorders of nervous, gastic, and immune system, lower growth rate, skin lesions and changes in hair coat, alterations in lipid and card metab
• - rumen produces in high amounts

A, D, B12, for some time

to much vit A in liver so don't feed cats liver, causes muscle soreness and sensitivity to touch

• made of AA (amino group NH2, R group, carboxylic group COOH)
• - peptide bonds, sequence determines protein function

is sequence of a chain of amino acids

occurs when the sequence of AA are linked by hydrogen bonds

occurs when certain attractions are present between alpha helices and pleated sheets

is a protein consisting of more than one AA chain

milk and animal co-products, fish products

meals, whey,

oilseeds, legumes,

soya canola, palm kernal, cotton seed meal, peas, beans

• - determined by N x 6.25
• - does not count for variable N content of protein, assumes all N is from protein, does not consider protein quality
• - not sufficient to estimate protein quality

• Protein efficiency ratio- PER
• Gross Protein Value- GPV
• Absolute amount- does not use AA, biological value
• -overall value of a group of raw materials can be calcualted from the sum of their individual values
• don't count individual AA

• in diet
• Iso, lue, val, lys, meth, thre, pheny, tryp, hist

• can't be synthesised in vivo fast enough for high performance
• arg, cyst, gly, pro, ser, tyro

• can be synthesised in body
• alan, asp, asparagine, glutamate, glutamine

• optimum performance
• 1. all essential AA
• 2. AA in the correct proportion balanceone to the other

Met and cys

Phe & tyr

• lower growth and increased environmental pressure
• deficient in M+C or THR
• animal proteins are usually better quality

• functional: higher content of essential AA
• often not bound, higher digestibility

• storage: poor content of essential AA
• bound lower digestibility

performance is restricted to the first limiting AA, no benefit in providing extra of others when there is 1 limited AA

• meat, eggs, milk
• coat condition, longevity
• cell membrane permeability, RBC integrity
• metabolic profiles, plasma urea

• better than LI: b/c N in LI has no nutritional value, alters AA by de- and trans- amination
• - hard to measure Ileal digestivity

• 1. undegradable- not digested in SI , feces
• -by pass, digested in SI, metabolisable protein
• 2.degradable protein- peptides/AA, mirco protein, metabolisable protein

• 1.NH3- liver, kidney, urine
• - microb protein, metabolisable protein
• 2. salivary glands- liver, kidney, urine

• protein and fiber need to work together,
• starch free- high in CP (ethanol production)

• breakdown of fiber- VFA
• protein- microbe protein and ammonia
• digestion in SI
• feed the animal and the rumen

• reduced breakdown of dietary components particularly "fiber"
• reduced overall dietary efficiency

• acidic pH
• pepsin, parapepsin, rennin in ruminants,
• producing polypeptides

• pancreatic secretions- trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase, caboxypeptidases A/B
• producing peptides oligopeptides + free AA

protease inhibitors- reduce, growth rate and protein digestibility, increased demand for met and cys, pancreatic hypertrophy

• Bowman Birk Inhibitor: 2 active sites, 71 AA, 7 disulphide bonds
• Kunitz Inhibitor: 1 active site, 181 AA, 2 Disulphide bonds
• (highest in soy less in peas and other plants)

• 2 major ANFs are heat labile, reduced/eliminated by heat
• 1. Autoclaving- moist heat underpressure
• 2. Extrusion- wet or dry
• 3. micronising- gas burners heat ceramis tiles, emit IR waves
• 4. jet-sploding/expansion- material heated and explodes into area of low pressure

greater the intake the more the pancrease weights, are prominant in legumes