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medstudent2017
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What four atoms make up 90% of all atoms in a living organism
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What amino acid has the capacity to buffer blood in the physiological range
Histadine
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Biological micromolecules
Nucleotide, amino acids, carbohydrates, lipids
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Biological macromolecules
Nucleic Acids, proteins, polysaccharides, membranes
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Amino acids are a precusor to
Proteins, peptide hormones, neurotransmitters, and alkaloids
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Hydrogen bonding
Occurs between hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a highly electronegative atom. Usually nitrogen oxygen and flourine
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Ionic bonds
Electrostatic interactions between permanently charged residues
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Vander waal reactions
Based on induced assymetric distribution of electrons
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Hydrophobic interactions
Non polar groups are shielded from water
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Isomers
Different compounds with the same molecular formula
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Stereoisomers
Differ only in the way the are oriented (have identical names except for cis/trans)
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What are the four different types on stereoisomers
- Enantiomers
- Diastereomers
- Geometric Isomers (cis trans)
- Conformational Isomers
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How do cellulose and starch differ in structure
- Cellulose has two equatorial
- Starch one equatorial one axial
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Chiral
- Mirror image that doesn't superimpose (hands)
- Has four different atoms at chiral center
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Achiral
Superimposable mirror images
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Enantiomers
- Non-superimposable mirror image but have identical meltin point, boiling point, and refractive index
- Counterparts interact different with other chiral molecules
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Equimolar mixture
Equal Mixture of two enantiomers and is optically inactive
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Define a buffer
Has the ability to resist changes of pH with addition of small amounts of acid or base consisting of a weak acid or base with its salt
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Carbonic acid is the primary blood plasma buffer keeping the blood at
7.4
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Carbohydrate formula
Cx(H20)y
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Monosaccharide
Carbohydrates that cannot be hydrolyzed simpler
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Oligosaccharide
Carbs whose hydrolysis yields 2-20 monosaccharides
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Disaccharides
Carbs that can be hydrolyzed to 2 monosaccharides
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Polysaccharides
Carbs whose hydrolysis yeilds 20+ monosaccharides (also called glycans)
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Carbohydrates chemical characteristics
- Water soluble
- No ionizable groups
- Several potentially reactive groups
- Can be oxidized or undrgo condensation
- Biochemical energy is huge
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Monosaccharide configuration (whether it is D or L) is determined by
- The chiral C atom furthest from the carbonyl C when in a Fischer projection with C=O on the right
- OH on right = D, L on the left
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All biologically relevant monosaccharides are
D sugars
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Hoffs rule
- 2n = # stereoisomers
- n = # of stereocenters
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Define isomerization
One molecule is transformed to another with the same atoms but different arrangement (A-B-C → B-A-C)
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What is the biological importance of chirality
The binding specificity of a chiral receptor site for a chiral molecule is usually only favorable one way
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Why do drugs that are enantiomers have to be produced at such a high purity
The enantiomer could be a taratogen, or other harmful drug
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Define aldose
An aldose is a monosaccharide containing one aldehyde group per molecule.
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Define a Ketose
A ketose is a sugar containing one keton per molecule
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Define a triose
A monosaccharide containing three carbons
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Define a Pentose
A monosacharide containing five carbons
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Define Hemiacetal
A compound derived from an aldehyde
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Define hemiaketal
A compound derived from a ketone
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Define a glycosidic bond
A type of covalent bond that binds a carbohydrate group by the anomeric carbon to another molecule
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Define an epimer
is an optical isomer that differs from one another in configuration by one chiral carbon
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Define Anomer
- One of a pair of cyclic stereoisomers (designated α or β) of a sugar or glycoside, differing only in configuration at the reducing carbon atom
 
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Define carbonyl carbon
A carbon attached to a double bonded oxygen
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Mutarotation is
- Change of optical rotation as an equilibrium of alpha/beta form of a mixture forms
- Equilibrium does not mean 50/50, more stable one is found predominating
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Benedicts test and Tollens test are used to test for
Reducing sugars
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Tollens test displays what on when positive
A silver mirror
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Benedict's test displays what on a positive test
A red brick participate
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What carbs won't react with a Tollens or Benedict test
- Those with acetal groups (glycosidic linkages)
- When OH is no longer on the anomeric C
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Reactions with what sugars give a positive Tollens and Benedicts test
Ketose and Aldoses
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What is starch
Storage form of sugar in plants
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Glycogen is the major what for animals
Storage carbohydrate in animals (Ready energy).
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Where is the glycogen stored
In the liver and muscles.
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What is cellulose, how is it found in plants
- Glucose units joined by beta glycosidic bonds
- Found in cell walls of plants providing the rigid structure resulting from sheets stacked on each other
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Humans can't use cellulose as a source of glucose why
We lack the enzyme to cleave beta linkages in cellulose
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Fatty acids are stored primarily
In adipocytes ( foound often in abdominal cavity and subcutaneous tissue) as a triglyceride
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Triaclyglycerol (TAG) has an important as
Energy reserve in animals providing twice the energy of carbohydrates
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In respect to energy storage, whats the primary difference between carbohydrates and Fats
Fats are a form of long term storage, carbohydrates rapid release
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Lipid can be the result of spoilage of foods due to
Their ability to be catalyzed by oxygen called lipid peroxidation
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