-
Define medial
Medial- Closer to the median plane
-
Define Lateral
Lateral- further from the median plane
-
define cranial
cranial- toward the head
-
define caudal
caudal- toward the tail
-
define ventral
ventral- toward the ground
-
what term corresponds to "crainial" in the rest of the body
rostral
-
for what is the term dorsal used
Surface of the body away from the ground and the surface below the proximal carpus and tarus directed toward the head ( surface opposite the palmar/plantar
-
What surfaces below the "top" (proximal end) of the carpus/tarsus are directed toward the tail or ground?
Palmar/plantar
-
define proximal
proximal-part closer to a point of attachment or to the trunk
-
define distal
distal- farther from
-
for what is the term peripheral used
a part distal from its point of origin or near the surface
-
define axial
axial-closer to the logitudinal axis of the limb
-
define abaxis
abaxis- farther from the longitudinal axis of the limb?
-
where is the axis of a limb in relation to the digits
between the 3rd and 4th digit
-
define external or superficial and internal or deep
closer to/ further from the outer surface of a sturcture, respectively.
-
define sagittal plane, median or med-sagittal plane
sagittal: divides the body into: sagittal=unequal right and left parts; mid-sagittal: equal parts
-
define transverse plane or cross section
plane divides the body into cranial and caudal parts or cuts a limb at right angle to its long axis
-
what are sections? list two
cuts through the planes of the body: sagittal section, transvers or cross section
-
list the human term (the term veterinary terms to which they correspond) and where they are correctly used in veterinary anatomy
- 1. anterior(cranial on limbs, rostral on face and ventral on body)
- 2. posterior(caudal on limbs and head; dorsal on body)
- 3. superior and inferior (dorsal and ventral)
-
the skeleton can be divided into _____ , ____ and visceral portions
axial and appendicular
-
name the three parts of the axial skeleton
skull, vertebral (spine), and thorax
-
the vertebral colomn consists of what five regions
cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and caudal (coccygeal)
-
what connects the thoracic girdle to the axial skeleton
muscle attachments(synsarcosis) (clavicle is rudimentary)
-
list the regions of the thoracic limb and the bones each includes
- Shoulder-scapula
- brachium-humerus
- antebrachium-ulna and radius
- carpus- carpal bones
- manus-carpal, metacarpal, phalangeal and sesamoid bones
- digits- proximal, middle, distal phalanges and associated sesamoid bones
-
list the regions of the pelvic limb and bones each includes
- pelvis/pelvic girdle: hip bones(ilium,ischium, pubis), sacrum, and first few caudal vertebrae
- thigh: femur
- stifle: femur, tibia, fibula
- crus: tibia, fibula
- tarsus/hock: tarsal bones: Pes: tarsal, metatarsal, phalangeal and sesamoid bones
- digits: proximal, middle, distal phalanges and associated sesamoid bones
-
What are the parts of the long bone
- two ends- epiphysis
- body-diaphysis
-
what joins the diaphysis to the epiphysis in mature bone?
metaphysis
-
name the fibrous covering of bone not covered by articular cartilage
periosteum
-
what is the compact bone surrounding the medullary cavity
compact of cancellous (spongy)
-
what are 2 methods of osteogenesis
- intramembranous(flat bones)
- endochondral(intracartilaginous) long bone
-
In endochondral (intracartilaginous) ossification, where are the centers of ossification located?
diaphysis and two epiphyses
-
lengthening of long bones occurs in what area?
outer growth plate (epipseal side of the plate)
-
what are the two different types of growth plates?
- traction (olecranon, calcaneus)
- Compression ( most of the rest)
-
What is the palpable caudal end of the skull used as a landmark?
external occipital protuberance
-
what are the palpable lateral processes just caudal to the skull
wings of the atlas
-
what are part of the hyoid apparatus crosses the ventral midline seen in lateral radiographs of the head
basihyoid bone
-
what are the enlarged transverse processes that are identifiable in the radiographs of the cervical region?
sled of sixth cervical vertebrae
-
what is usually the 11th thoracic vertebrae with the most vertically oriented spine used as a landmark for back radiographs?
anticlinal vertebrae
-
what is the dorsal gap between the arches of contiguous vertebral arches used as access points to the vertebral canal for epidurals
interarcuate spaces
-
what projects laterally from the scapula and is palpable
spine of scpula
-
what is the distal end of the spine of the scapula
acromion
-
what is the ventral part of the acromion in the cat
suprahamate process
-
what is the origin of the biceps brachii m. on the scapula that can be fractured
supraglenoid tubercle
-
what is the palpable cranial most part of the shoulder region of the thoracic limb?
greater tubercle or point of the shoulder
-
what is the canal in the medial epicondyle of the cat humerus that carries the median n and brachial vessels
supracondylar canal (foramen)
-
What is the bony landmark located in the fifth intercostal space in the standing animal
olecranon, point of the elbow
-
what is the proximal end of the notch(trochlear) of the ulna
anconeal process
-
what is the distal end of the notch (trochlear) of the ulna
Medial coronoid process
-
what small sesamoid bone maybe located on the medial side of the carpus
sesamoid bone of the oblique carpal extensor (abductor pollicus longus) tendon
-
what is a landmark on the medial side of the manus and pes, if present
dewclaw
-
what bony process holds the horny claw
ungual crest
-
what is the palpable part of the hip bone caudal to the flank
tuber coxae, point of the hip
-
what is the palpable caudal end of hip bone
ischial tuber, ischiatic tuberosity, pin bone
-
What is the palpable lateral structure of the proximal femur
greater trocanter
-
what is the palpable proximal end of the tibia
tibia tuberosity
-
what is the distal end of the fibula
lateral malleolus
-
what is the small sesamoid bone that may be found on the lateral side of the stifle
sesamoid in the tendon of origin of the popliteal muscle
-
Structural classification groups joints according to their _______ ______.
uniting medium
-
what are the three types of uniting medium of joints in the structural classification
fibrous, cartilaginous or synovial
-
a suture is what type of structural joint Functional (movement)?
fibrous, immovable
-
is a gomphosis (implantation of teeth in the jaw) a true joint?
no, b/c teeth aren't part of the skeleton
-
where are symphyseal joints found
generally on midline of body
-
what type of joint occurs between the bodies of most vertebrae
symphyseal - intervertebral disc
-
define the joint, actions, and give an example
- ginglymus or hinge
flexion and extension - elbow and most joints of limbs
-
define the joint, actions, and give an example
plane joint
gliding or sliding - carpal bones
-
define the joint, actions, and give an example
ball-and socket/sheroidal
universal movement - shoulder and hip
-
define the joint, actions, and give an example
pivot joint
rotation around a longitudinal axis (atlantoaxial joint)
-
define the joint, actions, and give an example
condylar joint
flexion and extension/rotation (stifle)
-
most of the joints of the thoracic and pelvic limb have what type of ligaments? which joints do not?
collateral ligaments, shoulder and hip
-
what five things characterize a synovial joint
mobility, articular cartilage, joint capsule (synovial membrane and fibrous capsule), synovial fluid, joint cavity
-
what covers the articular ends of bone
articular cartilage, usually hyaline catilage
-
what is the nerve and vascular supply in articular cartilage
there is none
-
how does the articular cartilage receive nutrition and remove waste.
synovial fluid since no blood supply
-
where are bursae located
between skin and bones, tendons and bones, muscle and bones, or ligaments and bones
-
what is the function of the bursa
reduce friction
-
what structure, similar to a bursa, is completely wrapped around a tendon?
synovial sheath
-
where are synovial sheaths commonly found
carpus, tarsus, digits
-
what is the function of a synovial sheath
reduces friction on a tendon as it crosses a number of joints
-
what is the configuration of the shoulder joint
Ball and socket joint ( spheroidal)
-
list the joints of the manus and the bones they are between
- carpus-antibrachiocarpal joint (radius and ulna and carpal bones)
- Middle carpal joint (proximal and distal carpal rows)
- carpometacarpal joint (distal carpal and metacarpal bones)
- Metacarpophalangeal joint ( metacarpal bones and a proximal phalanx)
- Proximal interdigital joint (proximal and middle phalanges)
- Distal interdigital joint "claw" ( middle and distal phalanges)
-
with what do the proximal ends of the ribs articulate? distal ends?
thoracic vertebrae, sternum
-
name the fibrocartilages between the bodies of adjacent vertebrae
intervertebral discs
-
what elastic connective tissue structure attaches the 1st thoracic spine to the spine of the axis (C2) in the dog? the cat?
nuchal ligament, none in cats
-
what elastic tissue fills the dorsal space (interarcuate space) between the arches of adjacent vertebrae?
ligamentum flavum, interarcuate, or yellow ligament
-
what connects the heads of a pair of opposite ribs, crossing the dorsal part of the intervertebral discs?
intercapital ligament
-
what is the relativily immovable joint between the sacrum and the ilium
sacroiliac joint
-
name the ball and socket joint of the pelic limb
hip joint, coxofemoral, coal joint
-
what are the fibrocartilaginous discs between the condyles of the femur and tibia
medial and lateral menisci (singular- meniscus)
-
how are the curciate ligaments that attach the femur and tibia named?
for their attachement to the tibia
-
list the 4 main joints of the hock/tarsus
- tibiotarsal, tarsocrucial, or talocrucral joint
- proximal intertarsal joint
- distal intertarsal joint
- tarsometatarsal joint
-
list the different types of muscles and whether they are voluntary or not
- striated (skeletal- voluntary, cardiac- involuntary)
- smooth ( unstriated, involuntary muscles)
-
what are the 2 attachments of skeletal muscles
- origin (proximal or least movable)
- insertion ( distal and more movable)
-
what are the flat attachments of flat muscles (ex abdominal muscles)
aponeuroses (singular-aponeurosis)
-
what is the difference between tendons and ligaments
- tendons- attaches a muscle to a bone
- ligament- attach 2 bones
-
what do muscles' actions depend upon?
how they cross a joint, the number of joints crossed, and the shape of the joints
-
define extrinsic and muscle and give an example
attach a structure to the body
-
define intrinsic and muscle and give an example
- intrinsic- both attachments in the structure
- ex-thoraciclimb, eye, larynx
-
what nerve innervates the supraspinatus and infraspinatus muscles
suprascapular nerve
-
what nerver innervates almost all the extensors of the thoracic limb?
radial nerve
-
what are the 2 groups of forarm muscles? what is their location?
- extensor of digits and carpus (craniolateral)
- flexors of the digitd and carpus (caudal)
-
what is the insertion of the deep digital flexor (ddf) and the superficial digital flexor (sdf) muscles
- ddf-distal phalanges
- sdf- proximal to the ddf insertion
-
what is the rectus sheath
aponeuroses of the abdominal m. around the rectus abdominus muscle
-
what muscles cover the trachea ventrally
two paired " strap Muscles" (sternohyoideus and sternothyroideus muscle)
-
What muscles are above and below the transvers processes of the vertebrae
- epaxial (above)
- hypaxial (below)
- ex. longus colli m. in the neck
-
what are the extensors of the stifle and what innervates them
cranial thigh (quadriceps) m. femoral nerve
-
what is the action and innervation of the medial thight muscles?
adduction, obturator nerve
-
what are the action of the crural muscles
- craniolateral- extensors of digits and flexor of the tarsus (called "extensors")
- caudal- flexors of the digits and extensors of the tarsus ( called "flexors")
-
what is the innervation of the extensor muscles of the crus
craniolateral extensors- common fibular nerve
-
what nerve innervates the thin muscles of the facial expression
facial nerve CrN7
-
what is the muscle of the facial expression that encircles the eye? what innervates it?
- Orbicularis oculi m.
- facial n. (auriculopalpebral branch)
-
what nerve is sensory to the 3 areas of the face and motor to the muscles of mastication
trigeminal n. (CrN5 all 3 division motor to mastication muscles- mandibular division)
-
what is the motor innervation to the muscles of the tongue?
hypoglossal cranial n. 12
-
what is the function of the cutaneous muscle
twitch skin (shoo flies away)
-
How is the nervous system divided functionally?
somatic (body) and autonomic (ANS, visceral system) nervous systems
-
How is the nervous system divided structurally?
central (CNS) and periferal nervous system (PNS)
-
which functional division of the nervous system keeps the body in balance with its external and internal environment, respectively
- external somatic
- internal autonomic (ANS)
-
what are the 2 parts of the CNS
Brain and spin
-
what are the parts of the peripheral nervous system
cranial and spinal nerves and ganglia
-
what are the 2 impulses of the nervous system, both somatic and autonomic
sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent)
-
what nervous structures pass from the spinal cord to the periphery
spinal nerves(LMN lower motor neurons
-
where do the spinal nerves leave the vertebral column
intervertebral foramen
-
what arises from the spinal cord to form a spinal nerve
- dorsal root (sensory)
- ventral root (motor)
-
what are the 2 main branches of spinal nerves
dorsal and ventral branches (both have motor and sensory fibers)
-
what areas do the ventral and dorsal motor branches of the spinal nerves supply motor innervation
- ventral- muscles ventral to the transvers process of the vertebrae
- dorsal- muscles dorsal to the transverse processes, sensory innervation not exactly the same
-
what spinal nerve branches supply sensation from the skin of the abdominal wall and back
dorsal- back (above the transverse processes) and upper flank (area just below the transvers processes) ventral- rest
-
list the components of a reflex arc
stimulus > receptor > sensory (afferent) neuron > interneuron or association neuron > motor (efferent) neuron or lower motor neuron (LMN) > effector (target) organ: the muscle or gland innervated by a motor neuron
-
what are aggregates of nerve cell bodies in the CNS? PNS?
- CNS- nucleus
- PNS- ganglion
-
what is grey matter
part of nervous tissue consisting of the neuranal cell bodies
-
what is a nerve
a bundle of nerve processes outside the CNS
-
what are nerve tracts or fasciculi
nerve fiber bundles of common origin in the brain and spinal cord
-
what forms nerve plexuses that are clinically significant
interlacing ventral branches of the spinal nerves
-
what important nerve arises from the cervical and brachial plexuses and supplies the diaphragm
phrenic nerve
-
what plexus supplies some of the extrinsic and all of the intrinsic muscles of the thoracic limb
brachial
-
what plexus supplies the abdominal wall, pelvic limb, external genitalia, rump and perineum
lumbosacral plexus
-
what is a dermatome
and area of skin supplied by a single spinal nerve
-
what 2 muscles does the suprascapular nerve innervate
supraspinatus and infraspinatus
-
where does the radial nerve first reach the skin
lateral arm, under the border of the lateral triceps ( susceptible to injury)
-
what innervates the cutaneous trunci muscle
lateral thoracic nerve
-
what nerve innervates the flexor of the elbow, and thus, is necessary for weight bearing
radial nerve
-
what nerve supplies the extensors of the elbow, carpus, and digits
radial nerve (extensor nerve)
-
what is the cutaneous innervation of the pay by the ulnar nerve
abaxial 5th (lateral) digit
-
what is the largest nerve crossing the heart to the diaphragm
phrenic nerve
-
what is the branch of the vagus nerve that returns to the neck
recurrent laryngeal nerve
-
what does the recurrent laryngeal nerve innervate? Which muscle is clinically important in horses/doges with roarers
most laryngeal skeletal muscles; cricorarytenoideus dorsalis m.
-
what nerve supply the intercostal muscles and a lot of the thoracic wall
intercostal n. (ventral branches of the thoracic n)
-
what do the ventral and dorsal branches of spinal nn. T 13, L1, L2 and L3 supply?
- Ventral branches- motor to the abdominal muscle and skin of the ventral abdomen
- dorsal branches- motor and sensory to the area above transverse process of the vertebrae, also sensory to the skin on the dorsal flank (paralumbar fossa)
-
what nerve supplies motor innervation to the adductors of the thigh?
Obturator nerve
-
What nerve innervates the extensors of the pelvic limb
common fibular (peroneal) nerve, dorsal pes
-
what is the cutaneous branch of the femoral nerve
saphenous nerve to the medial limb
-
what nerve is required to bear weight on the pelvic limb
femoral nerve (L4-6) extends the stifle
-
what nerve supplies the anus and the external anal spincter
caudal rectal nerve
-
what is a spinal cord segment
portion demarcated by the pair of spinal nn. that arise from it
-
name the five divisions of the spinal cord
cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, caudal
-
name the 5 functional divisions of the spinal cord
- Area 1/Cervical (C1-5)
- Area 2/Brachial (C6-T1)
- Area 3/ Thoracolumbar (T3-L3)
- Area 4/ Pelvic limb (L4-S1)
- Area 5/ Sacral and Caudal (S2-Cn)
-
what is the central "H" shaped mass of a spinal cord cross section
Grey matter
-
of what does white matter of the spinal cord consist
myelinated axons running up and down the spinal cord
-
what are ascending and descending tracks of the spinla cord and what do they carry
- ascending- myelinated afferent axons, sensory info
- descending- myelinated efferent axons of upper motor neurons, motor fibers
-
where does the spinal cord end in the dog/cat
- dog above L6 (6-7)
- cat- above sacrum
-
where are upper motor neurons located
in the CNS descending to synaspe on LMN
-
where are lower motor neurons located
extending away from the spinal cord and brain to muscles or glands
-
are spinal nerves lower or upper motor neurons
LMN
-
what does the efferent neuron of a reflex arc connect
spinal cord muscles or glands
-
the lower motor nueron can be _____ active
spontaneously
-
what is the function of most UMN
inhibit spontaneous activity of LMN until action is desired
-
what is the function of proprioceptive fibers
sense position of body parts to each other and to the environment
-
over what structures do propioceptive fibers travel
-thus where is the lesion if this is lost?
- peripheral nn. spinal cord. brain stem to cerebellum, and cerebrum
- -any of the above structures, thus it dosen't localize the lesion but is a sensitive indication that there is a neuro problem
-
what structures carry superficial and deep pain sensory fibers
periferal nerve, spinal cord, brain stem, and cerebrum
-
what is a dermatome?
area of the skin innervated by a nerve
-
what is an autonomous zone?
only on spinal nerve respectively
-
how can knowing the spinal segments innervation myotomes and dermatomes be used clinically
used to localize lesions
-
what are the meninges
three connective tissue coverings that encircle the spinal cord and brain
-
list the spaces associated with the meninges
- epidural space (between the vertebrae and the dura mater)
- subarachnoid space- between the pia and arachnoid, contains CFS
-
List and describe the meninges
- dura mater- outer tough meninx
- arachnoid - middle meninx pushed against the inside of the dura matter
- pia mater- innermost meninx, closely investing the spinal cord and brain
-
describe the 2 expansions of the subarachnoid space used clinically
- cisterna magna- located between the caudal surface of the cerebellum and the dorsal surface of the medulla, just inside the foramen magnum
- lumbar cistern- surrounding the lumbar enlargement of the spinal cord
-
HOw is the brain divived functionally
- cerebrum.diencephalon(forebrain)
- brainstem
- vestibular system
- cerebellum
-
what makes up the forebrain and what is its function
cerebrum and diencephalon ( higher functions and controls ANS and endocrine system)
-
what is responsible for consiousness and arousal? Where is ti located?
reticular activation system, brainstem
-
list 3 clinically significant parts of the brainstem
- canial nn. 3-12
- vital centers
- reticular activation system
-
name the 3 vital reflex centers in the brainstem
- cardiac
- vasomotor
- respiratory
-
what is the function of the cerebellum
- coordinated movement
- maintain equilibrium
- maintain posture
-
what is the function of the vestibular system
controls posture and balance
-
for lesions localization how can the vestibular system be divided
- peripheral vestibular part (inner ear)
- centeal vestibulad portion (brain stem)
- centers in the cerebellum
-
what does contralateral and ipsilateral mean?
contralateral- opposite side, Ipsilateral, same side
-
Name the cranial nerves
- 1. Olfactory
- 2. optic
- 3. oculomotor
- 4. trochlear
- 5. trigeminal
- 6. abducens
- 7.facial
- 8. vestibulocochlear
- 9. glossopharyngeal
- 10. vagus
- 11. accessory (spinal accessory)
- 12. hypoglossal
-
what cranial nerve is entirely sesory, dealing with vision
optic nerve (CrN2)
-
what crainial nerves move the eye
oculomotor, trochlear (IV) and abducens (VI)
-
What is the function of the parasympathetic fibers of the oculomotor nerve
motor involuntary/ smooth muscles of the eye (near focus lens and constrict pupil)
-
what does the trigminal nerve (CrN5) innervate
sensory to most of the head by the 3 branches and motor to the muscles of mastication
-
what does the facial nerve (CrN 7 ) innervate
muscles of facial expression (includes orbicularis oculi and eyelids) lacrimal gland (ANS) and taste
-
what does the auriculopalpebral nerve (br. CrN 7) innervate?
eyelids (and ear) muscles
-
what are the most important functions of the facial nerve clinically
motor to the orbicularis oculi m. and the lacrimal gland (dry eye)
-
where are the buccal branches of the facial nerve
cross the masseter m. laterally and superficially
-
what is the trigeminal/facail reflex arc
trigeminal nerve- sensory component/ facial nerve. motor component
-
what is the eighth cranial nerv? with what does it deal
vestibulocochlear nerve, hearing and balnace and motion
-
what cranial nerve carries autonomic nerve fibers between the brain and the visceral of the thorax and abdomen
vagus
-
what motor nerves supply the pharynx to aid in swallowing
Vagus (X) and glossopharyngeal (IX) nn.
-
what is the recurrent laryngeal nerve? what does it innervate
branch of the vagusm arises in the thorax and extends back to the larynx to innervate the skeletal muscles of the larynx, including the cricoarytenoideus dorsalis m.
-
what clinically important nerves pass through the middle ear
facial nerve and sympathetic fibers
-
what type of nerve is the hyoglossal (CrN12)? what does it innervate
- motor nerve (somatic)
- tongue mm.
-
parasympathetic fibers are carried over what four cranial nerves
oculomotor 3, facial 7, glossopharyngeal 9, vagus 10,
-
how does the autonomic nervous system work
smooth and cardiac muscles and glands
-
what is the function of each division of the ANS
- Parasympathetic- energy conservation
- sympathetic- fight or flight
-
where do the 2 divisons of the ANS arise
- Sympathetic- thoracolumbar outflow
- Para- craniosacral ("parap places") out flow
-
How does the ANS differ structurally from the somatic nervous system
2 lower motor (efferent) neurons instead of one
-
what are the 2 lower motor neurons of the autonomic nervous system
preganglionic and postganglionic
-
where does the preganglionic fiber synapse with the postganglionis effernt fiber in relationship to the central nervous system
in ganglia distal to/outside of the CNS
-
what is the parasympathetic innervation to the thorax and most of the abdomen
vagus nerve - cranial nerve 10
-
what separates the respiratory and digestive passasges in the head
hard and soft palates
-
name the 4 types of permanent teeth and give their abbreviations
- Incisors (I)
- Canine (C)
- Premolars (PM)
- Molars (M)
-
what are the 3 divisions of the pharynx/ throat (common passageway for the digestive and respiratory systems)
oro-, naso-, and laryngopharynx
-
what structure separtes the nasopharynx from the orophaynx
soft palate
-
name the lymphoid tissue in the lateral wall of the oropharynx
palatine tonsil
-
what is the largest meatus located between the ventral nasal concha and the hard palate
ventral nasal meatus
-
what is the unpaired hyoid bone that crosses the midline
basihyoid bone
-
what does the pull of cricoarytenoideus dorsalis muscle on the muscular process of the arytenoid cartilage do
swings the vocal process and vocal cords laterally, thus, opening the glottic cleft
-
what is the only larynegeal muscle which opens the glottic cleft
cricoarytenoideus dorsalis
-
what is the narrowest part of the laryngeal cavity
glottic cleft
-
to which side of the trachea does the esophagus incline in the middle of the neck
left
-
how does the cavity of the bony thorax relate to the thoracic cavity
larger , dome of the diaphragm extends into the bony thorax to the 6th intercostal space (encases abdomen)
-
the descending duodenum is on which side of the abdomen
right
-
where is the cecum located
right side between small and rest of large intestine
-
list three different types of peritoneum
- parietal (wall)
- visceral and connecting
-
how are mesenteries (connecting peritoneum) named?
"Meso" + organ connected
-
where are the ovaries located in the carnivores
caudal to the kidneys in the sublumbar region
-
what is the suspensory ligament in carnivores
part of the broad ligament connecting the ovary to the last 1 or 2 ribs
-
what is the fornix of the vagina
ventral recess formed by the cervix projecting into the vagina
-
describe the cats scrotum and apperance
- perineal (close to anus)
- densely covered by hair
-
what is the relationship of the ductus deferens to the ureters
loops dorsally over the ureters (water under the bridge?)
-
what is the inguinal canal
passageway through the caudal abdominal wall
-
name the 3 main parts of the vaginal tunic
visceralm parietal, and connecting vaginal tunic
-
the vaginal cavity is continuous with the ____ at the vaginal ring
peritoneal cavity
-
on which side of the spermatic cord is the ductus deferense
medial
-
what is the definition of an artery?
Artery- vessles that travel away from the heart most of the time
-
what is the definition of a vein
towards the heart
-
which specific large veins returnblood from the roughly cranial and caudal part of the body directly to the heart
cranial venacava and caudal vena cava
-
what are the chambers of the heart in the order they receive blood
right atrium, right venticle, left atrium, left ventricle
-
which side of the heart is part of the pulmonic circulation
right side
-
which side of the heart is part of the systemic circulation
left side
-
what is the outflow of the heart (left side) to the body
Aorta
-
what arteries travel up the neck to supply the head and face
comon carotid arteries
-
which veins return blood from the head and neck
external jugular veins
-
name the 3 unpaired branches of the abdominal viscera of the abdominal aorta
celiac, cranial and caudal mesenteric arteries
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name the main branches (arteries) of the terminal aorta
- external iliac (to the pelvic limb)
- 2 internal iliac ( to the pelvis)
- 1 median sacral (to the tail)
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what is the main artery supplying th uterus
uterine artery
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what vessels supply the ventral abdominal wall?
where do they run
- cranial and caudal epigastric vessels
- -on the ventral abdomen, on either side of the midline
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what is the direct continuation of the external iliac artery out of the abdominal cavity to the pelvic limb for which it is the main supply
femoral artery
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what is the vacualr supply to the ovary
ovaruan artery and vein in mesovarium
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where does the lengthening of the bone occur
epiphyseal side of the metaohyseal plate
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during growth, how does the physis appear radiographically
as a radiolucent line (dark)
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what should not be mistaken for fractures radiographically
physeal lines or sesamoid bones
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what is a normal remnant of the closed physis
physeal scar
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what is the large vein draining the intesting to the sinusoids of the liver
portal vein
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where do the ovarian or testicular veins drain
- right- into the caudal vena cava
- left- into the left renal vein (avoid crossing the aorta)
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which vessel crosses the ventral surface of the adrenal gland and thus is a surgical landmark for finding the structure
phrenicoabdominal vein
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where is the cephalic vein located
on the cranial surface of the forarm
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what is the vein on the ventral surface of the tail that is the direct continuation of the median sacral vein
median caudal vein
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what are the 2 superficial veins of the pelvic limb
medial and lateral saphenous veins
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what vein is on the either side of the ventral surface of the tongue
lingual vein, sublingual vein is on the floor of the mouth
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describe the thoracic duct
the major lymphatic vessel returning most of the lymph collected in the body back into the general circulation at the venous angle
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list the superficial lymph nodes of the body
parotid- mandibular, superficail cervical, popliteal, and superficail inguinal lymph nodes
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what lymp node is located near the end of the aorta above the descending colon
medial iliac lymph nodes
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the skin consists of 2 layers
epidermis, dermis
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the layers of the skin lay on the
subcutaneous layer, superficial fascia, subcutis, hypodermis
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where is the skin thin,, where is it thick
belly neck
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what is another name for eyelids
palpebrae
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what is the function of the pupil
control light coming into the eye
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what is the flap of skin inside the medial part of the eyelids
third eyelide (nictitating membrane)
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how can you get the third eye lid to cross the eye for examination
open the palpebral fissure and press the eyeball through the lateral upper lid
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how can the moith be opened to look in the oral cavity
grasp the upperna jaw with one hand and pushing done on the incisors with the finger of the other
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what are the large, shearing teeth of dogs and cats
carnassial of sectorial teeth ( upper premolar 4 and lower molar 1)
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describe the external ear canal
2 parts vertical part passes down takes a sharp trun and continues as the horizontal part to the ear drum(tympanic membrane)
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what is the pocket of skin in the caudal edge of the ear
cutaneous pouch
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what do the costal cartilages of the ribs caudal to the sternum form
costal arch
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what remains of the entrance of the umbilical cord
umbilicus or belly button
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hom many mammae does the dog usually have
8-10
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what is the lateral abdominal area between the back legs
inguinal region
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what is the most dorsal portion of the flank
paralumbar fossa
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what are the boundaries of th perineum
base of the tail, tuber ischii, past the vulva (female), to the base of the scrotum (dog) past the scrotum in cats
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where are the openings of the anal sacs
4 and 8 oclock position
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what is the depression on either side of the anus
ischiorectal fossa
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where would you find the tibia and fibula
crus or true leg(gaskin)
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where is the clitoris found
in the ventral commissure of labia
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what is the picture taken by a radiographis machine called
radiograph of film
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why isn't X-ray an appropriate term for a radiograph/film
can't see X-rays
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what is evaluated in a radiograph
shape and density
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what can eliminate needing to think about the inverse square rule
using standard distances for different techniques eliminates distance as a variable
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how do you minimize the distortion of divergence in radiology
always place the part/side of interest against the cassette so it will be sharp and close to actual size
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how do the 5 different radiographuc densities appear on film
- air-black
- fat-white
- water- shades of grey
- bone- white
- metal- white
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what are the 5 B's that aid in remembering density differences
- bubbles, blubber, blood, bone, bullet =
- air, fat, water, bone, metal
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what is required to see structures in a radiograph that touch each other
differences in densities between them
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how is fat a friend when reading radiographs
more radiolucent = contrast soft tissues
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What is the composition of most long bones at birth
none capped at both ends with articular cartilage, 2 cartilaginous discs between the diaphysis and the 2 epiphyses
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what are the cartilaginous discs between the diaphysis and epiphyses
epiphyseal metaphyseal or growth plates or physes
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the different views ____ different sides of the bones
highligh/silhouette
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what does the lateral view silhouette
cranial and caudal surfaces of bones
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is cartilage seen on films
no inferred
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since cartilage cant be seen on film how is it evaluated
check subchondral bone
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what is the space between bones seen in a film
joint space and articular cartilage
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what is the surviall law when reading films
read in a systematic manner
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what helps you orient the views and indicate the direction of the beam
anatomical landmarks
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what viewsilhouettes lateral andmedial limb structures
craniocaudallym dorsopalmar, or dorsoventral
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since a radiograph is a two dimensional representation of a three diminsional object, hjow is the third dimension extrapolated
at least 2 radiographs must be taken at 90 degrees to each other
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define increased opacity
whiter shadow than expected caused by and increased subjust density or size
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define decreased opacity
darker shadow than expected, due to a decrease in subject density or size
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define radiolucent
dark, a structure allowing most of the x-rays to pass through it, resulting in a dark shadow
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define radiopaque
white, a structure that blocks most of the rays, resulting in a white shadow
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define increased radiolucency
darker, caused by a drecrease density or size of a subject
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what is the general rule in preparing the animal to take good radiographs
minimal amount of movement
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discuss minimal amount of movement when taking radiographs
varies with tyoe of radiograph- from minimal restraint to sedation or anesthetized
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what does and does not lead protect against in relationship to radiology
- does- scatter
- doesn't primary beam
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what is often imagined in radiographs but can't be seen as it is a 2 demsenisionalimage
do not try to see or read depth
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how are radiographic views named
where the beam enterd and exits the body
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describe how the beam enters and exits the body
- right of left lateral projections of major body cavities (abdomen, thorax)
named for the surface closest to the cassette (beam exit point)
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describe how the beam enters and exits the body
- DV/ dorsalventral and Vd/ventral dorsal projections
- Dv- beam enters the dorsal surface and exits the ventral
- VD- enters vental exits dorsal
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describe how the beam enters and exits the body
- craniocaudal or anterior/posterior projections
beam enters the cranial/anterior side and exits the caudal/posterior surface of the limb above the carpus/tarsus
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describe how the beam enters and exits the body
- DP/ dorsopalmar (plantar) PD or palmarodprsal (plantar)
- DP- shot from the front to back (dorsal to the palmar side) below the proximal end of the carpus/tarsus
- PD- beam through the palmar/plantar side and out the dorsal side below the proximal end of the carpus (tarsus)
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what do lead R and L markers indicate on a radiograph
patients side placed on the film/ down side of body in VD and DV films, or which limb if there is only one limb in the film
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what should always be used to check if the markers on a film are correct
anatomical landmarks
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what side pf the body or limbs are the following anatomical landmarks
- apex of heart = L
- gas bubble in fundus of the stomach = L
- descending colon = L
- cranial kidney = right
- caudal kidney = left
- anticlinal vertebra - vertical vertebrae =usually T11 in dogs
- head of humerus = caudal
- radius = cranial
- olecranon = caudal
- distal end of the ulna = lateral and caudal
- accessory carpal bone = lateral and palmar
- dew claw = medial
- patella = cranial
- fibula = lateral
- calcaneus = lateral and plantar
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