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kinds of nerve cells in the nervous system
sensory, motor and interneurons
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sensory neurons
are afferent neurons transmit sensory info from receptors to spinal cord and brain
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motor neurons
efferent neurons, transmit motor info from brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands
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interneurons
- most numerous, found between other neurons.
- mostly found in brain.
- interneurons in spinal cord can send signals to muscles without going through brain
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antagonistic
opposition to one another
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neurotransmitter responsible for parasympathetic responses
acetylcholine
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meninges
thick sheath of connective tissue that covers the brain
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meninges composed of three layers
- dura mater
- arachnoid mater
- pia mater
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brainstem
- hindbrain and midbrain
- more primitive
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limbic system
group of neural structures developed later, associated with emotion and memory
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cerebral cortex
the most recent evolutionary development of the brain (part of forebrain)
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medulla oblongata
lower brain structure for regulating vial functions
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pons
lies above the medulla and contains sensory and motor pathways between cortex and medulla
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cerebellum
maintain posture and balance and coordinates body movements
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inferior colliculus
- receives sensory info from auditory system
- in midbrain
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superior colliculus
receives visual sensory input
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neuropsychology
study of functions and behaviors associated with specific regions of the brain
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what can stimulate a patient's cortex causing neurons to fire?
- electrodes
- cortical maps of brain from electrical stimulation
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elecroencephalogram (EEG)
electrical activity measured by inserting ultrasensitive microelectrodes into individual brain cells
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regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)
- detects neural activity based on increase in blood flow.
- assume that certain regions of the brain activated with increased blood flow
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thalamus
forebrain structure responsible for receiving sensory (except smell), sorting and transmitting info to the cerebral cortex
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hypothalamus
- homeostatic functions (metabolism, temp, and water balance)
- primary regulator of ANS
- links the endocrine and nervous systems
- regulates hormonal function of pituitary gland
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lateral hypothalamus (LH)
- hunger center, filled with receptors that tells body it needs more food or fluid
- (Lacks Hunger when destroyed)
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ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)
- satiety center, stop eating signal
- Very Much Hungry when destroyed
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anterior hypothalamus
- control sexual behavior
- Asexual when destroyed
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four F of hypothalamus
- feeding
- fighting
- flighting
- functioning (sexual)
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posterior pituitary
axonal projections from the hypothalamus and site of release for hypothalamic hormones ADH and oxytocin
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pineal gland
- secretes melatonin
- receives direct signals form retina for coordination with sunlight
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diencephalon (forebrain)
differentiates to form thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, pineal gland and connecting pathways to other brain regions.
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basal ganglia
coordinate muscle movement as they receive info from cortex and relay this info to brain and spinal cord
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extrapyramidal motor system
gathers info about body position and carries this info to CNS
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parkinson's disease
- destruction to basal ganglia
- jerky movements and uncontrolled resting tremors
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limbic system
- loops around brain and associated with emotion and memory
- consists of septal nuclei, amygdala and hippocampus
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septal nuclei
primary pleasure centers, linked to addictive behavior
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amygdala
- defensive and aggressive behaviors
- when damaged, aggression and fear reactions are reduced
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hippocampus
learning and memory processes
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fornix
hippocampus communicates with other portions of the limbic system through long projection
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anterograde amnesia
not able to establish new long term memories, memory for events that occurred before brain injury is intact.
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retrograde amnesia
memory loss of events that transpired before brain injury
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gyri and sulci
bumps and folds respectively in the cerebral cortex
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lobes of the brain
- F-POT
- frontal
- parietal
- occipital
- temporal
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frontal lobe
- consists of prefrontal cortex (executive function-wake up, remember this, regulates alertness/attention)
- motor cortex (initiates voluntary motor movements)
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association area
area that integrates input from diverse brain regions like the prefrontal cortex
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projection area
- perceptual or motor tasks, like receiving visual input or sending out motor commands to muscles
- ex: primary motor cortex
- somatosensory cortex
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primary motor cortex
initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord toward the muscles
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motor homunculus
neurons in the motor cortex are arranged systematically acocording to parts of the body which they are connected.
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broca's area
speech production
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parietal
- somatosensory cortex involved in somatosensory info processing (destination for all touch, pressure, temp and pain signals)
- spatial processing and manipulation (map reading, orient oneself)
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occipital lobe
- very rear of the brain
- vision
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temporal lobe
- auditory cortex
- wernicke's area (language reception and comprehension)
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acetylcholine
- NT used by efferent limb of the Somatic Nervous system part of PNS (transmit nerve impules to muscles)
- used by some parts of brain for arousal and attention
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catecholamines
ephinephrine, norepinephrine and dopamine, all play roles in experience of emotions
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primary NT of Sympathetic nervous system
- epinephrine and noepinephrine (released by adrenal medulla)
- promote fight or flight
- epinephrine acts systematically as a hormone, noepinephrine acts locally.
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dopamine
movement and posture
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GABA
hyperpolarization of postsynaptic membrane
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endorphins
natural pain killers produced in the brain, peptide neurotransmitters
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anterior pituitary
- Master, releases hormones that regulate the
- activities of endocrine glands
- part of pituitary gland located at base of brain
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adrenal glands
located at top of kidneys and are divided into adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex
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adrenal cortex
- produces corticosteroids
- produces also testosterone and estrogen
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hypophyseal portal system
connects the hypothalamus and pituitary gland
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neural tube
- forms the CNS
- formed from furrowing of the ectoderm
- has alar plate (sensory neurons)
- basal plate (motor neurons)
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placenta
transmits food, oxygen, and water to the fetus, while returning water and waste to the mother
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umbilical cord
attaches fetus to uterine wall and palcenta.
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rooting reflex
automatic turning of the head in direction of stimulus that touches the cheek, such as nipple during feeding.
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moro reflex
infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms, then slowing retreating their arms and crying
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babinski reflex
toes to spread apart automatically when sole of foot is stimulated.
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parallel play, selfish
at two years of age, children will play alongside each other without influencing each other's behavior.
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stranger anxiety, solitary play
7 months
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separation anxiety, onlooker play
1 year
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gender specific play
3 yrs
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same sex friend circles
6-12
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conformity to peers
5 years
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reflex arcs
ability of interneurons to relay information to source of stimuli while simultaneously routing it to the brain
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