A & P Final

Male and female reproductive systems are connected by a series of organs and glands that produce & nurture sex cells & transport them to sites of fertilization

• Male = sperm
• Female = eggs or oocytes
• Sex cells are produced by a special type of division called meiosis
• Meiosis includes two successive divisions , called the first (meiosis I) and second (meiosis II) meiotic divisions

• Meiosis I separates homologous (the same, gene for gene) pairs
• May not be identical because a gene may have variants

Prophase I

Metaphase I

Anaphase I

Telophase I

• Meiosis II begins after telophase I
• Similar to mitosis
• This division completes with each sex cell having one set of genetic instructions, or 23 chromosomes (compared to two sets (46 chromosomes) in other cells)

• Prophase II
• Metaphase II
• Anaphase II
• Telophase II

• Epididymides
• Ductus deferentia
• Seminal vesicles
• Prostate gland
• Bulbourethral glands

• Tightly coiled tubes
• Connected to ducts within the testis
• Promote maturation of sperm cells

• Are muscular tubes
• About 45 centimeters each
• Extends from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct

• Attached to the vas deferens near base of the urinary
• bladder
• Secrete alkaline fluid
• Secrete fructose and prostaglandins
• Contents empty into the ejaculatory duct

• Surrounds the proximal portion of the urethra
• The ducts of the gland open into the urethra
• Secretes a thin, milky, alkaline fluid
• Secretion enhances fluid mobility
• Composed of tubular glands in connective tissue
• Also contains smooth muscle

• Inferior to the prostate gland
• Secrete mucus-like fluid
• Fluid released in response to sexual stimulation

• The fluid the urethra conveys to the outside during ejaculation is called semen
• Semen consists of:
• Sperm cells
• Secretions of the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, & bulbourethral glands
• Is slightly alkaline
• Contains prostaglandins
• Contains nutrients
• Volume is 2-5 milliliters of semen per ejaculation
• Average 120 million sperm cells per milliliter of semen

• Includes the:
• Scrotum (and two testes)
• Penis

• Pouch of skin and subcutaneous tissue
• Dartos muscle – smooth muscle in subcutaneous tissue; contracts to cause wrinkling of the scrotum
• Medial septum divides the scrotum into two chambers
• Each chamber is lined with a serous membrane
• Each chamber houses a testis and epididymis

• Conveys urine and semen
• Specialized to become erect for insertion into the vagina

• The erection:
• Parasympathetic nerve impulses
• Blood accumulates in the erectile tissues
• The orgasm:
• Culmination of sexual stimulation
• Accompanied by emission and ejaculation
• The ejaculation:
• Emission is the movement of semen into the urethra
• Ejaculation is the movement of semen out of the urethra
• This is largely dependent on sympathetic nerve
• impulses

• Hormones secreted by the hypothalamus, the anterior pituitary gland, & the testes control male rep. functions
• Hormones initiate and maintain sperm cell production & oversee the development and maintenance of male sex characteristics

• The hypothalamus controls maturation of sperm cells & development of male secondary sex characteristics
• Negative feedback among the hypothalamus, the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, and the testes controls the concentration of testosterone

• The male sex hormones are called androgens
• Interstitial cells in the testes produce most of them, but small amounts are made in the adrenal cortex
• Testosterone is the most important

• Increased growth of body hair
• Sometimes decreased growth of scalp hair
• Enlargement of the larynx and thickening of the vocal cords
• Thickening of the skin
• Increased muscular growth
• Thickening and strengthening of the skeletal bones

• Several ligaments hold each ovary in position
• The largest is called the broad ligament and is attached to the uterine tubes and uterus
• The suspensory ligament holds the ovary at the upper end
• The ovarian ligament is a rounded, cord-like thickening of the broad ligament

• Like the testes in the male fetus, the ovaries develop from masses of tissue posterior to the parietal peritoneum, near the developing kidney
• They descend to locations just inferior to the pelvic brim where they remain attached to the lateral pelvic wall

• The tissues of an ovary can be divided into an inner medulla and an outer cortex
• The ovarian medulla is mostly composed of loose connective tissue and contains many blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerve fibers
• The ovarian cortex consists of more compact tissue & has a granular appearance due to tiny masses of cells called ovarian follicles

• During prenatal development of a female, oogonia divide by mitosis to produce more oogonia
• The oogonia develop into primary oocytes
• Each primary oocyte is closely surrounded by a layer of flattened epithelial cells called follicular cells, forming a primordial follicle

• At puberty, the anterior pituitary gland secretes increased amounts of FSH, and the ovaries enlarge in response
• With each reproductive cycle, some of the primordial follicles mature

• As many as twenty primary follicles may begin maturing at any one time
• One dominant follicle usually out-grows the others
• Typically only the dominant follicle fully develops & the others degenerate

• As a follicle matures, its primary oocyte undergoes meiosis I, giving rise to a secondary oocyte
• & a first polar body
• The process of ovulation releases these cells from the follicle

• The female internal accessory organs include:
• Uterine tubes
• Uterus
• Vagina

A fibromuscular tube that conveys uterine secretions, receives the penis during intercourse, and provides an open channel for offspring

• The female external reproductive organs surround the openings of the urethra and vagina and is known as the vulva, and include:
• Labia majora
• Labia minora
• Clitoris
• Vestibular glands

• Rounded folds of adipose tissue and skin
• Enclose and protect the other external reproductive parts
• Ends form a rounded elevation over the symphysis pubis

• Flattened, longitudinal folds between the labia majora
• Well supplied with blood vessels

• Small projection at the anterior end of the vulva
• Analogous to the male penis
• Composed of two columns of erectile tissue
• Root is attached to the sides of the pubic arch

• Space between the labia minora that encloses the vaginal and the urethral openings
• The vestibular glands secrete mucus into the vestibule during sexual stimulation

• Hormones secreted by the hypothalamus, the anterior pituitary gland, and the ovaries control development
• & maintenance of female secondary sex characteristics, maturation of female sex cells, & changes during the monthly reproductive cycle

• Usually occurs in the late 40s or the early 50s
• The reproductive cycles stop
• The ovaries no longer produce as much estrogens & progesterone as previously
• Some female secondary sex characteristics may disappear
• It may produce hot flashes and fatigue
• Migraine headaches, backaches and fatigue is possible
• Hormone therapy may prevent effects on bone tissue

The mammary glands are accessory organs of the female reproductive system specialized to secrete milk following pregnancy

• Located in the subcutaneous tissue of the anterior thorax within the breasts
• Composed of lobes
• Estrogens stimulate breast development in females

• A mammary gland is composed of fifteen to twenty irregularly shaped lobes
• Each lobe contains glands (alveolar glands), drained by alveolar ducts, which drain into a lactiferous duct that leads to the nipple and opens to the outside
• Dense strands of connective tissue form suspensory ligaments that support the breast

• The mammary glands of males and females are similar
• As puberty is reached, ovarian hormones stimulate development of the glands in females

• Birth control is the voluntary regulation of the number of offspring produced and the time they are conceived
• This control requires a method of contraception

The practice of withdrawing the penis from the vagina before ejaculation, preventing entry of sperm cells into the female reproductive tract

Requires abstinence from sexual intercourse two days before and one day after ovulation

• Condom
• Diaphragm
• Cervical cap
• Spermicidal foams or jellies

Spermicides

• These deliver estrogen and progesterone to prevent pregnancy
• Various methods are used to deliver hormones including:
• Flexible chemical ring (Nuvaring)
• Plastic patch (Ortho Evra)
• The pill orally
• (Similar to these combined hormones is the “minipill” which contains only progestin)

An intramuscular injection of Depo-Provera protects against pregnancy for three months by preventing maturation and release of a secondary oocyte

• An intrauterine device, or IUD, is a small, solid object that a physician places in the uterine cavity
• An IUD interferes with implantation of a blastocyst

• These are silent infections
• Most are bacterial and can be cured
• Herpes, warts, and AIDS are viral and cannot be cured
• Many cause infertility
• AIDS causes death

• Burning sensation during urination
• Pain in the lower abdomen
• Fever or swollen glands
• Discharge from the vagina or the penis
• Pain, itch, or inflammation in the genital or the anal area
• Sores, blisters, bumps or rashes
• Itchy, runny eyes

• A sperm and a secondary oocyte unite, forming a zygote, and the journey of prenatal development begins
• After 38 weeks of cell division, growth and specialization into distinctive tissues and organs, a new human being enters the world
• Humans grow, develop and age
• Growth is an increase in size
• Development, which includes growth, is the continuous process by which an individual changes from one life phase to another
• – Prenatal period is from fertilization to birth
• – Postnatal period is from birth to death

• Pregnancy is the presence of a developing offspring in the uterus
• It consists of three periods, or trimesters, each three months long

• Before fertilization can occur, a secondary oocyte must be ovulated and enter a uterine tube
• Only 200 of between 200 to 600 million sperm reach a secondary oocyte

Fertilization is the union of an egg cell (secondary oocyte) & a sperm cell