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endoskeleton vs. exoskeleton
- endo (what we have, on inside)
- exo (lobsters, need to shed when growing)
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chondro
relates to cartilage.
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arthritis
lack of cartilage in joints
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chondrocytes
secretes matrix called chondrion found in cartilage
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diaphysis
compact bone characterized by cylindrical shafts
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epiphysis
- dilated ends of bone
- has spongy inside
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periosteum
- surrounds long bone to protect it
- serve as site of muscle attachment
- can differentiate to osteoblasts
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epiphyseal plate
- separate the epiphysis and diaphysis
- site of longitudinal growth
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what are osteocytes and where is it located
mature bone cells and it's located in lacunae
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what are canaliculi
little canals that allow nutrient and waste exchange to each lacunae
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endochondral ossificatio
hardening of cartilage
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what is involved in bone formation
parathyroid and calcitonin
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how does estrogen prevent osteoporosis?
stimulate osteoblast activity
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ligaments
bone connects to bone
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synovial fluid
ease the movement of one structure to another.
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articular cartilage
coats the surfaces of bones so impact is restricted to the lubricated joint cartilage
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what kind of cells make up muscles
skeletal, smooth, cardiac
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sarcomere
basic contractile unit of a muscle
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myofibrils
sarcomeres put together
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sarcoplasmic reticulum
- endoplasmic reticulum in muscle cells
- surrounds myofibrils
- has a lot of Ca2+
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sarcoplasm
sarcolemma
- cytoplasm in muscle
- sarcolemma (cell membrane)
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t-tubules
connected to sarcolemma and oriented perpendicular to myofibrils and allowing for ions to flow.
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myoglobin
single polypeptide chain, binds oxygen more tightly than hemoglobin
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thin filaments
actin, also has troponin and tropomyosin
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I band
contains only thin filaments
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which kind of muscle cell is multinucleiated
skeletal
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what results in the release of massive Ca2+ from SR during contraction?
action potential at neuromuscular junction conducted along sarcolemma and t-tubule
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what happens when Ca2+ binds to troponin?
tropomyosin shifts and exposes myosin binding sites on actin
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what happens to myosin and actin when ATP binds?
causes dissociation of myosin from actin
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how does muscle increase force?
by increasing number of fibers they recruit
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tetanus
prolonged contractions and no time to relax
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what nervous system controls skeletal muscle?
somatic nervous system (voluntary)
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what nervous systems control smooth and cardiac muscle?
autonomic nervous system (involuntary)
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where are smooth muscle cells found?
- digestive tract, bladder, uterus, blood vessel walls
- peristalsis
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creatine phosphate
carries extra P so when muscle need ATP, then it can donate the phosphate
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three types of connective tissue
- elastic
- collagenous
- reticular (branched, join connective tissue to adjoining tissue)
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fibroblasts
secrete substances that are components of extracellular fibers
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what are two types of loose connective tissue?
fibroblasts and macrophages
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tendons
attach muscle to bone
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ligaments
connect bone to bone
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what kind of muscle cells are straited?
cardiac and skeletal
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osteoblasts
bone cells that secrete bone matrix
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osteoclasts
bone resorption
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osteocytes
mature osteoblasts that eventually gets surrounded by matrix and primary role is bone maintenance
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intramembranous ossification
skull is from this kind of bone formation
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red fibers vs. white fibers
long distance runners have more red muscle fibers (more myoglobin)
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osteoporosis
- increase in activity of osteoclasts and decrease in activity of osteoblasts
- increase in blood Ca2+ can promote osteoblast activity
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from mouth to anus
oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine
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mastication
mechanical digestion in the mouth
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larynx
part of respiratory tract
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epiglottis
covers trachea during swallowing
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hat kind of glands are in the gastric (stomach) mucosa
gastic gland and pyloric glands
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what kind of cells does gastric glands secrete?
- mucous cells
- chief cells (pepsinogen, which is zymogen of pepsin)
- parietal cells (secrete HCl)
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what actives pepsinogen?
HCl
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what does pyloric glands secrete?
gastrin (induces stomach to secrete more HCl) produces chyme
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what is the main function of the stomach?
digestion
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what connects the stomach to the small intestine?
pyloric sphincter
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three parts of the small intestine?
duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
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what is the inner wall of small intestine covered in?
villi, each then is covered in microvilli, which increases absorptive capabilities
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what segment of small intestine does most digestion occur?
duodenum
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pancreatic juice
bicarbonate helps to neutralize acid
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pancreatic amylase
large polysaccharide into small disaccharide, breaks down carbs
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what kind of peptidases are in pancreas?
trypsmogen, chymotrypsinogen, elastinogen, carboxyl peptidase
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enterokinase
produced by small intestine actives tryposinogen to trypsin (which activates other zymogens)
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where is bile produced and stored?
liver, gall bladder
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CCK (cholecytokinin)
hormone that triggers gall bladder to release bile into duodenum
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how is CCK triggered?
CCK is released by small intestine in response to movement of chyme out of stomach and into intestine
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function of bile
emulsify fats and cholesterol into micelles
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secretin
hormone that stimulates pancreatic juice fom pancreas
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enzymes and hormones secreted by small intestine
- digest disaccharides (maltase, lactase, and sucrase)
- peptidase, enterokinase, secretin and CCK
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enterogastrone
slows the movement of chyme and allows more time to digest fat
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salivary amylase, pancreatic amylase, maltase, sucrase and lactase
digest carbohydrates
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jejunum and ileum main functions
- absorptive
- nutrients move across epithelial cells into intestinal capillaries b/c of gradient created by blood carrying nutrients away
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HDL and LDL
health and unhealthy
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chylomicrons
triglycerides and esterified cholesterol are packaged into and enter into bloodstream by
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why is LDL bad?
- chylomicros are processed in bloodstream to LDL (can lead to atherosclerosis)
- LDL taken up by liver-repackaged into HDL, VLDL, and LDL
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which are fat soluble vitamins
A, D, E, K
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three parts of large intestine
cecum, colon, and rectum
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large intestine is responsible for?
water absorption
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what connects small and large intestine and contains appendix?
cecum
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colon function
absorbing water and salts in undigested material from small intestine
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anus
- internal (involuntary) sphincter
- external (voluntary) sphincter
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what gives rise to anus in humans?
blastopore
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what absorbs chylomicrons into lymph vessels?
lacteals
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