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What is language and characteristics
- Set of symbols used for communication:
- Facilitates thinking, problem solving and decision making.
- unique to humans.
- Supports creative and progressive social interaction
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What are the 2 components of language
- 1- language production= formation of languge.
- 2- Language comprehension= ability to understand menaing of language
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What are the building blocks of language:
- 1- Phonemes= smallest unit of sound.
- 2- Morphemes= smallest unit of meaning in a language (eg. word pigs has 2: pig and s)
- 3- Syntax= set of rules in a language describing how words are used(grammar)
- 4- Pragmatics= the functional, practical use of language ( body language)
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Sequence of language learning
- 1- Pre vocal (2-4 months)= distinguishes phonees.
- 2- Babbling (6 months). meaningless sounds.
- 3- First words (1 year). single word
- 4- Telegraphic speech (by 2) simple 2 words
- 5- Pragmatics (by 3) basic understanding
- 6- Grammar( by 4) understand grammar without education
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3 Theories of how language is learned.
- 1- Nature= children are genetically programmed at birth to talk.
- 2- Nurture= language is entirely learned/
- 3- Nature & nurture= both theories are important.
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Critical period/sensitive period in language development
- 1- Critical= stage when an individual is particularly open to specific learning.
- 2- Sensitive= Stage when an individual can best acquire specific skills.
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Broca's area
- - Critical for speech production.
- - Associated with grammar.
- - Located in frontal lobe/
- - Damage results in:
- 1 Agrammatism= cant use proper grammar.
- 2 Broca's aphasia= difficulty producing speech (difficulty creating speech)
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Wernicke's area
- - Critical in language comprehension.
- - Located in temporal lobe.
- - Damage results in:
- 1 Wernickes's aphasia= difficulty producing speech (meaningless)
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Linguistic relativity hypothesis
The more words we have relating to a single concept, the more complex our thoughts are about that concept.
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What involves problem solving
Thought s and actions to achieve a desired goal.
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3 steps to solving a problem
- 1- define the problem= define ultimate goal.
- 2- Find strategies for solving the problem:
- - Algorithm= step-by-step procedure to solving problem that guarantees a solution.
- - Heuristic= shortcut to solving problem.
- - Insight= Sudden realization of answer.
- 3- evaluation.
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mental stumbling blocks to solving problems
- 1- Confirmation bias.
- 2- Functional fixedness= failure to use familiar objets.
- 3- mental set= tendency to continue the smae method even another approach is better.
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What's decision making
is the process of considering alternatives and choosing among them.
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What is metacognition
- Thinking about our own thougts. includes:
- - Reviewing
- - Self-reflection= thinking about our own identities to modify our behavior based on past experience.
- - Theory of mind= thinking about another person's feelings.
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Theory of mind: what happens in the brain
Activated when a person performs a task as well as when they witness another perform a task.
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Disorder characterized by inability to control one's thoughts is
- 1-Obsessive-compulsive Disorders (OCD)
- - seratonin imbalance.
- - characterized by the presence of anxiety-producing obsessions
- 2- Schizophrenia
- - lost touch with reality.
- -experiences hallucinations, delusions. etc.
- - linked to genetics, affects 1% of population.
- -possitive symptoms= excesses of thought, emotion, or/and behavior.
- - negative symptoms= deficits of thought, emotion or/and behavior.
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What's social psychology
is the study of how the actual, implied, or imagined presence of others influences our thoughts, feelings and, actions.
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What's social cognition.
- how people perceive, interpret, and categorize their own and others' behavior.
- 1- Attitudes= Relatively stable and long-lasting evaluations of things and people.
- 2- Attributions= Casual explanations we develop to explain other people's behavior
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ABC model of attitudes
- - The affective component= how we feel toward the object.
- - The behavioral component= How we behave toward the object.
- - The cognitive component= What we believe about the object.
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How do attitudes develop and why do they change.
- - Attitudes develop early through socialization by parents, peers, media and teachers
- - Attitudes change to justify new behaviors ( you recycle, so you change your attitude about global warming to justify why you recycle.
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cognitive dissonance is and who proposed it
- Emotinal discomfort as a result of holding contradictory beliefs or behaving in contradictory ways.
- occurs when we have two inconsstent cognitions.
- There are ways to relieve dissonance.
- 1- change attitude.
- 2- change behavior.
- - it was proposed by leon festinger.
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What's the self-perception theory
It's when people simply infer what their attitudes are by observing their own behavior.
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What are implicit attitudes:
- - Attitudes that are not easily accessible.
- - Implicit association test (IATs)
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Prejudice and stereotypes arise from?
From the human tendency to identify with a group.
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What's stereotypes and prejudice.
- - stereotypes= Generalized impresions based on social groups. (are, race, beliefs)
- - Prejudice= negative attitudes toward members of a social group.(racism, sexism, homophopbia,ageism)
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What's the realistic conflict theory
- - Oldest theory of prejudice.
- - Amount of actual conflict between groups determines the amount of prejudice between groups.
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Social identity theory
- Three processes:
- 1- social categorization: affiliation with one's group.
- 2- Social identity: Forming an identity in the group.
- 3- Social comparison: compare the group favorably to the other groups.(we like to feel good about the group that we belong to.
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why do people use persuasion
to try to influence the attitudes of other peoples
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attitudes and the power of persuasion.
- Central route to persuasion= focus on content of the meassage, factual information and logic to change attitudes (factual information)
- - Peripheral route= Focus on superficial information to change attitudes. (attractive spokesperson, catchy jingle)
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What are the three persuasion strategies
- 1- foot in the door- Get the target to agree to something small so they can agree o something bigger later.
- 2- Door in the face= Ask for something big knowing you will be turned down, but the request the smaller item that you really wanted.
- 3- Appeals to fear= Ads make it seem like something bad will happen if you don't comply.
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types of attributions or causal explanations of behavior
- 1- Dispositional= The behavior was due to the person's disposition or personality.
- 2- situational= The behavior was due to some aspect of the situation.
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What's the fundamental attribution error.
Reliance of dispositional factor to explain others' behavior
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What's the actor-observer effect
People make situational attributions as actors and dispositional attributions as observers
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What's the self-serving-bias
- Tendency to attribute successes to dispositional attributions and failures to situational.
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What are social forces (roles and norms)
- - Social norms: social conventions that provide order and predictibality * example. how you ride an elevator.
- - Social roles: Expectations based on social position (set of norms).
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What's conformity
tendency to yield to real or imagined group pressure.
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What's obedience
act of following direct commands, usually given by an authority figure.
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Solomon Asch conformity experiment
- -Changing to fit groups expectations.
- - In this experiment, Asch found that 75% of participants yielded to implicit group pressure to conform to an incorrect judgement.
- - grooup size and unanimity are a key factor in conformity
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Stanley Milgram (obedience experiment)
Found that 65% of subjects continued to follow orders to administer what they believed to be dangerous electric shock.
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Factors that lead to obedience
- - Legitimacy/closeness of authority figure.
- - Remoteness of victim.
- - Assignment of responsibility.
- - Modeling.
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Group dynamics
- - Group productivity= optimal group size depends on task.
- - Social facilitation= Improvement in performance because others are present.
- - Social loafing= Exerts less effort in a group task than one would in an individual task.
- - Group polarization= Current attitudes become more intense with group interaction.
- - Groupthink= Faulty group decision making as a result of trying too hard to agree.
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helping behavior is of two types
- 1- Altruism= motivated by concern of others.
- 2- Egoistic= motivated by a desire to reduce one's own distress to receive awards.
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Whats's bystander apathy.
The more people are present, the less likely any one person will attempt to help
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What do the following study:
A) Milgram experiment.
B) Asch experiment.
C) Zimbardo experiment.
D) Genovese effect.
- A= Obedience.
- B= Conformity.
- C= Social roles.
- D= Bystander effect.
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Aggression describes:
A broad range of behaviors intended to harm others.
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What the frustration-aggression hypothesis proposes.
Aggression arises in response to frustration.
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What are the 5 factors linked to liking:
- - Similarity.
- - Proximity.
- - Self-disclosure.
- - Situational factors.
- - Physical attractiveness.
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Stenberg's Triangular theory of love states that:
Love involves Intimacy, Passion and commitment.
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Adults display three types of attachment in love relationships:
- - Secure attachment.
- - Avoidant attachment.
- - Anxious-ambivalent attachment.
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Disorders of functioning
- - Social phobias= Extreme and persistent fear of social situations.
- - Avoidant personality disorder= Social withdrawal and hypersensitivity to rejection.
- - Dependent personality disorder= Excessively obedient.
- - Antisocial personality disorder= Chronic disregard for and violation of other rights
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Parts of the brain involved in social functioning
- - Orbitofrontal cortex= social reasoning, reward evaluation,reading other people.
- - ventromedial prefrontal cortex= reward and punishment processing, interpreting non verbal info.making social and moral assessments and decisions, feeling empathy.
- - Insula= Empathy, reading others.
- - Amygdala= identify emotional facial expresions, pay attention to stimuli
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motivation is
An internal process that activates, guides, and maintains behavior over time.
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Instinct theory of motivation
- behavior is motivated by instincts that are inborn and that are activated by environmental stimuli.
- eg. newborn's reflexes, maternal protection.
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Drive reduction theory of motivation
Motivation originates from biological needs to maintain the body in a state of equilibrium (homeostasis).
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Arousal theory of motivation.
Behavior is motivated by the need to achieve optimum levels of arousal.
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Incentive
Behavior is motivated by internal (intrinsic= wanting to learn) or external (extrinsic= grades,money recognition) incentives of rewards.
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Maslow's Hierarchy of needs.
When different motives compete, basic survival needs must be satisfied first before we are motivated to satisfy higher level needs such as belonging or self steem
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levels of hierarchy of needs of Maslows
- 1st- physiological= needs(food, water, sex)
- 2nd- safety= feel safe.
- 3rd- love and belonging= need to have relationships.
- 4th- esteem= feel good about one self.
- 5th- self actualization=need to become all that one is capable of becoming.
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What the Yerkes-Dodson law states
States that performance on task is best when arousal level is optimal for that specific task.
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Cues to eat
- - Empty stomach and low blood glucose stimulate lateral hypothalamus.
- - inhibiting satiety signals from the ventromedial region of hypothalamus.
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Cues to stop eating
- Once stretch receptors are activated and blood glucose reaches certain level, the ventromedial hypothalamus will once again become active and inhibit LH
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What causes obesity
- - Genetics= low metabolism, abnormal leptin gene.
- - Environmental/social= common in people with overweight friends.
- - Psychological= restriction based on beliefs rather than hunger.
- - Interactions among factors
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Anorexia nervosa
- - Preoccupied with being or becoming fat.
- - Dangerous and results in:
- *blood chemistry imbalance.
- *death (20%).
- - treatmern=
- * cognitive-behavioral therapy.
- * Hospitalization.
- * family therapy.
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Bulimia nervosa
- - binging and purging= induce vomiting, laxatives.
- - excessive exercise.
- - is tricky to isolate.
- - treatment=
- * behavior modification.
- * cognitive therapy.
- * antidepressants.
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phases in sex
- 1- Desire= desire to have sex.
- 2- Excitment= heart rate rises, blood is pump to genitals.
- 3- Plateau= blood pressure, muscle tension, breathing heavy and rapid.
- 4- Orgasm= sudden release of sexual tension and involuntary muscle contraction.
- 5- Resolution= body returns to normal state.
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Evolutionary theory in sexuality
States that gender differences in sexuality have evolved to maximize the odds of survival
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What causes sexual orientation
- -Genetic influence.
- - Prenatal exposure to hormones.
- - differences in the size of the hypothalamus.
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Sexual problems
- - Dysfunctions.
- - Paraphilias= exhibitionism, voyeurism, fetishism, pedophilia, masochism, sadism.
- - Gender identity disroder.
- - Medical probles
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Affiliation is
our need to interact with others, not just survival but for self-worth
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What does self-determination theory suggests
that we need competence, relatedness and autonomy to realize our potential
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sensation is
Process of receiving raw sensory information and sending it to the brain.
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Perception is
Process of selecting, organizing and making sense of sensory information
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What are the raw environmental stimulus
- - Vision= Light waves.
- - Hearing= Sound waves.
- - Smell= Airborne chemicals.
- - Taste= food chemicals.
- - Touch= Pressure.
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What's absolute treshold
- smallest amount of stimulus that one can detect.
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Sensory adaptation is
when constant stimulation decreases number of sensory messages sent to the brain, which causes decreased sensation.
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how do we smell
chemical odorants are carried through the air and reach the 5 millions receptors in the nasal cavity then olfactory receptors neurons generate a neural impulse and send it to the olfactory bulb
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What are the 5 types of receptors in the tongue
- - Sweet.
- - Sour.
- - Bitter.
- - Salty.
- - Umami: savoriness
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What's flavor=
the result of taste and smell working together
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What is touch
- The combination of four skin senses:
- - pressure
- - warmth.
- - cold.
- - pain
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Sensory receptors
- 1- Free nerve endings= near surface of skin(detect, touch, pressure, pain, and temperature).
- 2- Meissner's corpuscles= fingertips lips and palms (transduce sensitive touch information).
- 3- Merkel's discs= near surface of skin
- 4- Pacinian corpuscles= deep in the skin (respond to vibration and pressure)
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3 steps of perception of touch
- 1- Sensory neurons register pressure.
- 2- information sent to thalamus.
- 3- information sent to somatosensory cortex and registers sensations.
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Two pathways of pain
- - fast= myelinated pathway.
- -slow= unmyelinated (nagging, burning pain)
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properties of sound
- Frequency= determines pitch.
- Amplitude= determines loudness.
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steps in hearing
- 1- sound waves enter the auditory canal.
- 2- hit the tympanic membrane.
- 3- pass into middle ear containing the ossicle bones( hammer,anvil,stirrup)
- 4- stirrup hits the oval window and creates vibrations that move fluid in cochlea.
- 5- vibrations move the basilar membrane.
- 6- as hair cells move they create electrical impulse that is carried to the auditory nerve.
- 7- signal travels from cochlea to brain stem, thalamus then auditory cortex.
- 8- Auditory information is forwarded to association areas.
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Steps in vision
- 1- light waves enter cornea.
- 2- pass though pupil.
- 3- pass through lens.
- 4- projects into retina (rods and cones)
- 5- Rods and Cones transduce into neural impulse.
- 6- neural impulse is sent to optic nerve.
- 7- optic nerve carries message from each eye to visual cortex
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What rods and cones do
- Rods= used in peripheral and night vision.
- Cones= used in central color vision, the fovea in the center of retina is all cones
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Trichomatic theory
There are three different sensor for color and each type responds to a different range of wavelenghts of light
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opponent-process theory=
- -the activation of one cone inhibits another cone, this theory explains color vision at the level of ganglion cells.
- - afterimages, opponent-process theory may explain color afterimages.
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