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Study of the structure and function of the body
Anatomy
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Study of anatomy in relation to medicine or other health sciences
Clinical Anatomy
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The study of the minimal amount of anatomy enough to understand the overall structure and function of the body
Basic Anatomy
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What is a Cell?
Basic structural, functional, and biological unit of the body
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It directs cell activity and contains genetic materials.
Nucleus
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Controls what goes in and out of the nucleus
Nuclear Membrane
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Jelly-like substance found inside the cell that acts as a medium for chemical reactions within the cell
Cytoplasm
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Packages the proteins made by ribosomes so they can be sent out of the cell
Golgi Apparatus
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Powerhouse of the cells. Breaks glucose (sugar) to release energy. Site of cellular respiration.
Mitochondira
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Storage center of the cell. It stores food, water, or waste of the cell.
Vacuole
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They make proteins. Either attached to ER or freely moving in the cytoplasm.
Ribosomes
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Transportation network of the cell.
Which is the protein synthesizer? lipid synthesizer?
- Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Rough ER - protein
- Smooth ER - lipid
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Helps the cell digest waste, food, and other worn out cell parts.
Lysosomes
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Produces ribosomes and rRNA
Nucleolus
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Controls what passes in and out of the cell
Cell Membrane
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Stores and transports substances from the golgi apparatus to the cell membrane export
Vessicles
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Superficial; Stratified epithelium whose cells are flattened as they mature and rise to the
surface
Epidermis
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Extremely thick at palms and soles of feet
Epidermis
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Deep; Composed of dense connective tissue containing many blood and lymphatic vessels,
and nerves
Dermis
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Thickness varies in diff. parts of the body; tends to be thinner on the anterior side
Dermis
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connects dermis to underlying deep fascia
or bone
Superficial Fascia
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Skin over joints; always fold in the same place
Skin Creases
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Skin is thinner than elsewhere and is tethered to underlying structures by strong bands
of fibrous tissue
Skin Creases
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- Keratinized plates on the dorsal surface of the tips of the fingers and toes
Ø Nails
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- proximal edge of the plate of nail
Root of the nail
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fold of skin that surrounds and overlaps the nail except for the distal edges
Nail folds
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- surface of the skin covered by the nail
Nail bed
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- Invagination of the epidermis into the
dermis where hair grows
- Lie obliquely to the skin surface
Follicles
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- extremities of the follicles that penetrate
the deeper part of the dermis. Has concave ends that are occupied by hair
papilla
Hair Bulbs
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- Smooth muscles connecting the underside of
the follicles to the superficial part of the dermis
- Innervated by sympathetic nerve fibers
Arrector Pili
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Contraction causes hair to move into a more vertical position and dimpling of skin
gooseflesh
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oily secretion that helps preserve the flexibility of the emerging hair; oils the surface epidermis of the surrounding follicle.
Sebum
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- Long, spiral, tubular glands distributed
over the surface of the body
- Extends through the full thickness of the
dermis; extremities may lie in the superficial fascia (most deeply penetrating
epidermal appendage)
Sweat Glands
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- loose areolar connective tissue + adipose
- contains collagen fiber bundles in: scalp, nape, palms, soles -- holds skin to the deeper structures
- lacks adipose in: eyelids, ear auricle, penis, scrotum, clitoris
Superficial fascia a.k.a. subcutaneous tissue
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lie between the skin and underlying muscles and bones
Fascia
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Ø Membranous layer of connective tissue
Ø Invests muscles + other deeper structures
Deep fascia
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well-defined layers influence the path taken by
pathogenic organisms during infection
Neck
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thin film of areolar tissue covering muscles and
aponeuroses
Thorax & abdomen
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sheath that holds muscles in place; has fibrous septa that extend into the muscle groups, dividing the limb into compartment
Limbs
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Restraining bands formed by a considerably thickened deep fascia in the region of joints
Retinacula
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fibrous tissues that attach ends of muscles to bones/cartilages/ligaments
Tendons
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fibrous envelope that is the outer covering of a muscle (areolar tissue)
Epimysium
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fibers run obliquely to the line of pull
Pennate muscle
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Compresses the sebaceous glands and causes it to extrude its secretions
Arrector Pili
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thin but strong sheet of fibrous tissue that attaches flattened muscles
aponeurosis
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interdigitation of the tendinuous flat
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interdigitation of the tendinuous ends of flat muscles
raphe
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Examples of parallel muscles?
- Sternocleidomastoid
- Sartorious
- Rectus abdominis
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- Tendon lies along one side of muscle
- Fibers pass obliquely to it
- extensor digitorum longus
Unipennate
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- Tendon lies in the center of muscle
- Fibers pass to it from two sides
- rectus femoris
Bipennate
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Series of bipennate muscles side by side (acromial fibers of deltoid)
Multipennate
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Tendon in the center, fibers passing from all sides (tibialis anterior)
Multipennate
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- Chief muscle or member of chief muscle group responsible for a certain action
- quadriceps femoris in extension of knee joint
Prime Mover
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- Opposes prime mover’s action
- Must be equally relaxed for the prime mover to contract
- biceps femoris opposes quadriceps femoris in extension of knee joint
Antagonist
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- Contracts isometrically (increase tone, but no movement produced)
- Stabilizes origin of prime mover
- rhomboid muscles & serratus anterior stabilize the scapula allowing the deltoid to act on the shoulder joint
Fixator
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- Stabilizes intermediate joints (through
which the prime mover passes first before the joint of its main action)
- Prevents unwanted movement in intermediate joints
- Flexor and extensor muscles of the carpus stabilize the wrist
joint, allowing the longer flexors and extensors of the fingers to work more
efficiently
Synergist
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Nerve Supply of Skeletal Muscles
- Mixed nerve. __% _____ & __% _____ +
some ______________________________
60% motor, 40% sensory +some sympathetic autonomic nerve fibers
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region on the midpoint of the muscle’s deep surface where the nerve enters
Motor point
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Above the spine of scapula
Supraspinatus
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Superficial
Superficialis
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From sternum and clavicle to mastoid process
Sternocleidomastoid
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From coracoid process to arm
coracobrachialis
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- long, spindle-shaped cells arranged in bundles or sheets
- found in digestive tract, blood vessels, urinary bladder, uterus
- propels materials through a lumen
Smooth Muscle
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wave of contraction along circularly arranged fibers + contraction of longitudinal fibers
Peristalsis
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Site where two or more bones come together
Joints
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- Articulating surfaces joined by fibrous tissue
- Very minimal movement is possible
Fibrous Joints
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Type of Joint
Sutures of Skull
Fibrous
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Type of Joint
Inferior tibiofibular joint
Fibrous Joint
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- United by a plate of hyaline cartilage
- No movement possible
- Primary Cartillaginous Joint
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Type of Joint
union of diaphysis & epiphysis
Primary Cartillaginous Joint
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Type of Joint
union of 1st rib and manubrium
sterni
Primary Cartillaginous Joint
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- United by a plate of fibrocartilage
- Articular surfaces covered by thin layer of
hyaline cartilage
- Minimal movement possible
Secondary Cartilaginous Joint
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What type of joint?
union of vertebrae
Secondary Cartilaginous Joint
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What type of joint?
symphysis pubis
Secondary Cartilaginous Joint
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- Articular surfaces covered by thin layer of hyaline cartilage
- Separated by joint cavity lined by synovial membrane, which extends to other articulating surfaces
Synovial Joints
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tough fibrous membrane that protects the synovial membrane
Fibrous capsule
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wedges of fibrocartilage found between articular surfaces (ex: knee joint)
Articular discs
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Ø Factors Affecting Degree of Movement
- - Shape of bones in the joint
- - Presence of adjacent anatomic structures
- - Presence of fibrous ligaments that unite
- the bones (often found outside the capsule)
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Factors Affecting the Stability of Joints
- Articular Surfaces
- Ligaments
- Muscle Tone
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Description: Flat articulating surfacesPlane Joints
- Plane Joint
- Movement: Sliding of bones on one another
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Description: resembles hinge of a door
- Hinge Joint
- Movement: flexion and extension
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Description: Central bony pivot surrounded by bony ligamentous right
- Pivot Joint
- Movement: Rotation
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Description: 2 convex surfaces articulating with 2 concave surfaces
- Condyloid Joint
- Movement: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, minimal rotation
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Description: Elliptical convex surface articulating with elliptical concave surface
- Ellipsoid Joint
- Movement: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction
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Description: 2 reciprocally concavoconvex surfaces (like 2 pieces that fit together)
- Saddle Joint
- Movement: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation
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Description: Concave head of bone + socket-like concavity of another bone
- Ball-and-socket Joint
- Movement: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, medial rotation, lateral rotation, circumduction
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What type of Joint?
Sternocleidomastoid
Plane Joint
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What type of Joint?
Acromioclavicular Joint
Plane Joint
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What type of Joint?
Elbow Joint
Hinge Joint
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What type of Joint?
Knee and ankle Joint
Hinge Joint
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What type of Joint?
Atlantoaxial Joint
Pivot Joint
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What type of Joint?
Superior radioulnar joint
Pivot Joint
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What type of Joint?
Metacarpophalangeal Joint (knuckles)
Condyloid Joint
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What type of Joint?
Wrist Joint
Ellipsoid Joint
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What type of Joint?
Carpometacarpal Joint of the Thumb
Saddle Joint
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What type of Joint?
Hip and Shoulder Joint
Ball-and-socket joints
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A sensory nerve supplying a joint also supplies the muscles that move the joint and the skin
over insertions of those muscles.
Hilton's Law
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band of connective tissue that connects two structures
Ligaments
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- Type of ligament that prevents excessive movement
- it may stretch if stress is prolonged
- dense bundle of collagen tissues
- Iliofemoral Ligament (hips)
- Collateral Ligament (elbow)
Fibrous Ligament
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- Type of ligament that returns to original length after stretching
- ligament in ear ossicles
- Ligamentum Flavum (vertebral column)
- Calcaneonavicular Ligament (foot)
Elastic Ligament
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- Closed fibrous sac containing viscous fluid
- For lubrication where tendons rub against bones, ligaments, or other tendons
- May also connect with cavity of synovial joints (ex: knee joint)
Bursa
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- Tubular bursa surrounding a tendon
- Function: reduce friction between tendon and surrounding structures
- Tendon invaginates bursa from one side
- Where tendons pass under ligaments and retinacula and through osseofibrous tunnels
Synovial Sheath
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- keeps the tendon suspended within the bursa
- allows blood vessels to enter tendon
Mesotendon
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- Mesotendon in the form of narrow threads
- Occurs where range of movement is extensive (ex: long flexor tendons of
fingers or toes)
Vincula
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Transport blood from the heart and distribute it to the various tissues of the body by
means of their branches. Do not have valves.
ARTERIES
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joining of branches of arteries
Anastomosis
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vessels whose terminal branches do not anastomose with branches supplying adjacent areas.
Anatomic end arteries
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vessels whose terminal branches anastomose with those of adjacent arteries; cannot keep the tissue alive should one of the arteries become blocked
Functional end arteries
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Vessels that transport blood back to the heart; many possess valves
Veins
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formed from veins made of fused smaller veins or tributaries
Venous plexus
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two veins accompany a medium-sized artery, one on each side
Venae comitantes
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a system of vessels interposed between two capillary beds
Portal system
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where veins leaving the gastrointestinal tract converge; this enters the liver and breaks up again into sinusoids.
Portal vein
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Microscopic vessels in the form of a network
connecting the arterioles to the venules
Capillaries
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- thin-walled blood vessels that have an
irregular cross diameter and are wider than capillaries
- found in the bone marrow, spleen, liver,
and some endocrine glands
Sinusoids
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- Connections between the arteries and veins
without the intervention of capillaries
- Found in some areas of the body principally the tips of the fingers and toes
Arteriovenous anastomoses
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- Types of connective tissue that contain large numbers of lymphocytes
- Essential for the immunologic defenses of the body against bacteria and viruses
Lymphatic tissues
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vessels whose terminal branches anastomose with those of adjacent arteries; cannot keep the tissue alive should one of the arteries become blocked
Functional end arteries
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Vessels that transport blood back to the heart; many possess valves;
Veins
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formed from veins made of fused smaller veins or tributaries
Venous plexus
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two veins accompany a medium-sized artery, one on each side
Venae comitantes
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a system of vessels interposed between two capillary beds
Portal System
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where veins leaving the gastrointestinal tract
converge; this enters the liver and breaks up again into sinusoids.
Portal vein
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Microscopic vessels in the form of a network
connecting the arterioles to the venules
Capillaries
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thin-walled blood vessels that have an
irregular cross diameter and are wider than capillaries
found in the bone marrow, spleen, liver,
and some endocrine glands
Sinusoids
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Connections between the arteries and veins
without the intervention of capillaries
Found in some areas of the body principally the tips of the fingers and toes
Arteriovenous anastomoses
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Ø Types of connective tissue that contain large numbers of lymphocytes
Ø Essential for the immunologic defenses of the body against bacteria and viruses
Lymphatic tissues
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Ø Tubes that assist the cardiovascular system in the removal of tissue fluid from the
tissue spaces of the body; vessels then return the fluid to the blood
Ø Found in all tissues and organs of the body except the CNS, eyeball, internal ear,
epidermis of the skin, cartilage and the bone.
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Ø network of fine vessels that drain lymph from the tissues. Capillaries are in turn
drained by small lymph vessels, which unite to form large lymph vessels.
Lymph capillaries
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carry lymph to lymph nodes
Afferent vessels
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transfer lymph away from lymph nodes
Efferent vessels
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NERVOUS SYSTEM
Divided into 2 main parts:
- - Central Nervous System (brain and spinal
- cord)
- - Peripheral Nervous System (12 pairs of
- cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves and their associated ganglia)
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1. controls voluntary activities
2. controls involuntary activities
- 1. Somatic Nervous System
- 2. AutonomicNervous System
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term given to nerve cell and all its processes
Neuron
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2 types of processes:
1. Receive information
2. transmits information away from the body
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consists of nerve cells embedded in neuroglia
Gray matter
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consists of nerve fibers (axons) embedded in neuroglia
White matter
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Consists of the cranial and spinal nerves, made up of bundles of nerve fibers (axons)
supported by delicate areolar tissue, and their associated ganglia
Peripheral Nervous System
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A vertical bundle of nerves formed from the
roots of the lumbar and sacral nerves below the level of the termination of the
cord that resembles a horse’s tail
Cauda equina
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Each spinal nerve is connected to the
spinal cord by 2 roots: anterior and posterior
1. consists of bundles of nerve fibers carrying nerve impulses away from the CNS
2. consists of bundles of nerve fibers carrying nerve impulses to the CNS
- 1. Anterior root (efferent fibers) - Motor
- 2. Posterior root (afferent fibers) - Sensory
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efferent fibers that go to the skeletal muscle and cause them to contract
Motor fibers
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fibers that are concerned with conveying information about sensation of touch, pain, temperature, and vibrations
Sensory fibers
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swelling on the posterior root where the
cell bodies of sensory fibers are situated.
Posterior root ganglion
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Anterior and posterior roots unite to form
a spinal nerve at each intervertebral foramen and upon emerging divides into a
large anterior ramus and a smaller posterior ramus.
a. passes posteriorly around the vertebral column to supply the muscles and skin of the back
b. continues anteriorly to supply the muscles and skin over the anterolateral body wall and all the muscles of the skin and limbs.
- a. Posterior ramus
- b. Anterior ramus
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- supplies the vertebrae and the coverings of
the spinal cord (the meninges)
Meningeal branch
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branches of the thoracic spinal nerves which are associated with the sympathetic part of the Autonomic
Nervous System
Rami communicantes
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Plexuses
- Formed, at the root of the limbs, when the
anterior rami join one another
- & are found at
the root of the upper limbs
- and are found at the root of the lower limbs
- Cervical and brachial plexuses
- Lumbar and sacral plexuses
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Part of the nervous system concerned with the innervation of involuntary structures
such as the heart, smooth muscles, and glands throughout the body and is distributed throughout the central and peripheral nervous system.
Autonomic Nervous System
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prepares the body for an emergency
a. Accelerated heart rate, causes constriction
of the peripheral blood vessels, and raises blood pressure
b. Brings about a redistribution of the blood
(leaves areas of the skin and intestines and becomes available to the brain,
heart, and skeletal muscle.
c. Inhibits peristalsis of the intestinal
tract and closes sphincters
Sympathetic
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aim at conserving and restoring energy
a. Slow heart rate, increase peristalsis of
the intestine and glandular activity, and open sphincters.
Parasympathetic
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· The name given to the lining of organs or
passages that communicates with the surface of the body.
· Consists essentially of a layer of epithelium
supported by a layer of connective tissue, the lamina propria
· Muscularis mucosa is sometimes present in
connective tissue
MUCOUS MEMBRANES
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· Line the cavities of the trunk and are
reflected onto the mobile viscera lying within these cavities
· Consist of smooth layer of mesothelium
supported by a thin layer of connective tissue
SEROUS MEMBRANES
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· serous membrane lining the wall of the
cavity; developed from the somatopleure and is richly supplied by spinal nerves
therefore sensitive to all common sensations such as touch and pain
Parietal layer
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· cover the viscera; developed from the
splanchnopleure and is supplied by autonomic nerves. It is insensitive to touch
and temp. but very sensitive to stretch.
Visceral layer
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1. ______ – shaft; outer part: compact bone
2. ______ – ends; cancellous bone + thin layer of compact bone
3. ____________ – separates diaphysis & epiphysis
4. ______ – part of diaphysis adjacent to epiphyseal cartilage
5. ____________ –found inside shaft; contains bone marrow
6. ____________ – CT sheath
that covers the compact bone of the shaft
- 1. Diaphysis
- 2. Epiphysis
- 3. Epiphyseal cartilage
- 4. Metaphysis
- 5. Central marrow cavity
- 6. Periosteum
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- Found in hands and feet
(ex: scaphoid, calcaneum, etc.)
- Roughly cuboidal in shape
- Cancellous bone + thin layer of compact bone
- Covered with periosteum
- Articular surfaces covered
with hyaline cartilage
Short bones
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Found in vault of skull
(e.g., frontal and parietal bones)
Flat bones
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- thin inner and outer layer
of compact bone
Tables
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layer of cancellous bone that separates the tables
Diploe
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- Small nodules of bone found where tendons rub against bony surfaces
- Most of it is embedded in a tendon
- Free surface is covered in cartilage
- Reduces friction on tendon
- Can alter direction of pull of tendon
Sesamoid bones
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bundles of collagen fibers from periosteum extending into the bone
Sharpey’s fibers
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Directly from connective tissue membrane
Ex: bones of vault of the skull
Ø Membranous
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From cartilage template
Ex: long bones of limbs
Ø Endochondral
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Ø Matrix > fibers
Ø Plays important role in bone growth (epiphyseal plate)
Ø covers nearly all articular surfaces of synovial joints
Ø incapable of repair when fractured; replaced by fibrous tissue instead
Hyaline cartilage
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Ø Matrix < collagen fibers
Ø Found
in discs within joints (ex: knee joint, temporomandibular joint)
Ø Found in articular surfaces of clavicle and mandible
Ø Can repair itself slowly
Ø Joint discs have poor blood supply; cannot repair
Fibrocartilage
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Ø Large number of elastic fibers embedded in matrix
Ø Found in: ear auricle, external auditory meatus, auditory tube, epiglottis
Ø Repairs itself with fibrous tissue
Elastic cartilage
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Anatomical position
- standing erect, feet pointing forward slightly
- apart, the upper limbs by the side and the face and palms of the hands facing
- forward
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upper part of a structure
Superior (cephalic)
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– lower part of a structure
Inferior
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at the front of the body
Anterior
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Posterior
at the back of the body
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Medial
structure nearer to the median plane of the body
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Lateral
structer farther from the median plane of the body
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Paramedian
planes at the sides of the median line and are parallel to it
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between 2 structures
Intermediate
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vertical line dividing the body into 2 equal parts
Midline
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closer to the root of the limb
Proximal
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– farther from the root of the limb
Distal
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closer to the surface of the body
Superfical
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within the body father from the surface
Deep
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closer to the center of an organ or cavity
Internal
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farther from the center of an organ or cavity
External
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outer wall of a body cavity
Parietal
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covering of an organ within the ventral body
Visceral
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– on the same side of the body
Ipsilateral
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on the opposite sides of the body
Contralateral
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body is lying on the back
Supine
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body is lying on its chest facing downward
Prone
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- vertical plane passsing through the center of the body dividing it into
left and right halves
- Median/Sagittal Plane
- -possible movements: flexion and extension
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imaginary vertical plane dividing the body into anterior and posterior
- Coronal/Frontal Plane
- possible movements:
- trunk –lateral flexion;
- arms – adduction and
- abduction
-
plane at right angle to the median and coronal planes dividing the body into superior and inferior
- Transvere/Horizontal Plane
- possible movements: rotation
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movement of a limb away from the midline of the body in the coronal plane
Abduction
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movement of a limb towards the midline of the body in the coronal plane
Adduction
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combination in the sequence of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction
Circumduction
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forward movement
Protraction
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backward movement
Retraction
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movement of foot so its sole faces medially
Inversion
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sole faces laterally
Eversion
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-
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Popliteus
back of the knee
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-
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PALPATION
Examination or exploration of an organ or an area of the body by touch (Biel, 2001).
-
INFO OBTAINED THROUGH PALPATION
- Deformities
- Temperature
- Swelling
- Pain
- Muscle tone
- Pulse
-
OBJECTIVES OF PALPATION
- Sense the position in space of yourself and the person being palpated
- Detect and evaluate change in the palpated findings, whether these are improving or worsening as time passes.
- Detect abnormal tissue texture
- Evaluate symmetry in the position of structures
-
Technique: Palm of the hand strokes the skin.
- Skin quality
- Expectation: Pliable, smooth and may have hair growth.
-
Technique: Back of the hand strokes the skin
- Skin temperature
- Expectation: Uniform body temperature.
-
Technique: Skin lifting and skin rolling between middle and index fingers and thumb.
- Skin consistency
- Expectation: Soft and elastic.
-
Technique: The pads of the index and middle fingers palpate perpendicular to the edge of the bone. You may palpate the soft tissue
surrounding the bone then gradually move towards the presumed location of the
edge of the bone.
- Palpating bony edges
- - Expectation: hard consistency and clearly defined borders.
-
Technique: Circular palpation using finger pads of the index and middle fingers and a minimal amount of pressure.
- Palpating bony prominences
- - Expectation: The bony prominence protrudes from the surrounding bone and
- it feels hard upon application of direct pressure.
-
Technique: The subject/your partner may isometrically contract against resistance to isolate the muscle. Finger pads may be used to find the largest area in the muscle.
Minimal pressure may be applied once the subject/your partner relaxes the muscle.
- Palpating muscle bellies
- Expectation: Firm consistency if muscle is contracted and soft consistency if muscle is relaxed
-
Technique: The subject/your partner may isometrically contract against resistance to isolate the muscle. Finger pads may be used to find the edge of the contracting muscle.
Once the edge is found, it can be steadily followed to find the course and the length of the muscle.
- Palpating the edge of muscles
- Expectation: Firm consistency and uniform, smooth contour
-
Technique: Place finger pads flatly and directly on the onto the point where you suspect the
tendon to be then alternately tense and relax the muscle
- Palpating tendons
- Expectation: Firm consistency with increasing firmness once the muscle is tensed.
-
Technique: Initially place the ligament under tension and use direct pressure to palpate the firm and elastic consistency
- Palpating ligaments
- Expectation: Firm consistency with increasing firmness when stretched.
-
Technique: A finger pad is placed flat with very little pressure over the presumed area of
the artery.
- Palpating blood vessels
- - Expectation: Pulsation.
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