Basic Anatomy

Study of the structure and function of the body

Study of anatomy in relation to medicine or other health sciences

The study of the minimal amount of anatomy enough to understand the overall structure and function of the body

Approaches of Anatomy

What is a Cell?

It directs cell activity and contains genetic materials.

Controls what goes in and out of the nucleus

Jelly-like substance found inside the cell that acts as a medium for chemical reactions within the cell

Packages the proteins made by ribosomes so they can be sent out of the cell

Powerhouse of the cells. Breaks glucose (sugar) to release energy. Site of cellular respiration.

Storage center of the cell. It stores food, water, or waste of the cell.

They make proteins. Either attached to ER or freely moving in the cytoplasm.

Transportation network of the cell.
Which is the protein synthesizer? lipid synthesizer?

Helps the cell digest waste, food, and other worn out cell parts.

Produces ribosomes and rRNA

Controls what passes in and out of the cell

Stores and transports substances from the golgi apparatus to the cell membrane export

Superficial; Stratified epithelium whose cells are flattened as they mature and rise to the
surface

Extremely thick at palms and soles of feet

Deep; Composed of dense connective tissue containing many blood and lymphatic vessels,
and nerves

Thickness varies in diff. parts of the body; tends to be thinner on the anterior side

connects dermis to underlying deep fascia
or bone

Skin over joints; always fold in the same place

Skin is thinner than elsewhere and is tethered to underlying structures by strong bands
of fibrous tissue

- Keratinized plates on the dorsal surface of the tips of the fingers and toes

- proximal edge of the plate of nail

fold of skin that surrounds and overlaps the nail except for the distal edges

- surface of the skin covered by the nail

- Invagination of the epidermis into the
dermis where hair grows

- Lie obliquely to the skin surface

- extremities of the follicles that penetrate
the deeper part of the dermis. Has concave ends that are occupied by hair
papilla

-  Smooth muscles connecting the underside of
the follicles to the superficial part of the dermis

- Innervated by sympathetic nerve fibers

Contraction causes hair to move into a more vertical position and dimpling of skin

oily secretion that helps preserve the flexibility of the emerging hair; oils the surface epidermis of the surrounding follicle.

- Long, spiral, tubular glands distributed
over the surface of the body

- Extends through the full thickness of the
dermis; extremities may lie in the superficial fascia (most deeply penetrating
epidermal appendage)

- loose areolar connective tissue + adipose
- contains collagen fiber bundles in: scalp, nape, palms, soles -- holds skin to the deeper structures
- lacks adipose in: eyelids, ear auricle, penis, scrotum, clitoris

lie between the skin and underlying muscles and bones

Ø  Membranous layer of connective tissue
Ø  Invests muscles + other deeper structures

well-defined layers influence the path taken by
pathogenic organisms during infection

thin film of areolar tissue covering muscles and
aponeuroses

sheath that holds muscles in place; has fibrous septa that extend into the muscle groups, dividing the limb into compartment

Restraining bands formed by a considerably thickened deep fascia in the region of joints

fibrous tissues that attach ends of muscles to bones/cartilages/ligaments

fibrous envelope that is the outer covering of a muscle (areolar tissue)

fibers run obliquely to the line of pull

Compresses the sebaceous glands and causes it to extrude its secretions

thin but strong sheet of fibrous tissue that attaches flattened muscles

interdigitation of the tendinuous flat

interdigitation of the tendinuous ends of flat muscles

Examples of parallel muscles?

- Tendon lies along one side of muscle
- Fibers pass obliquely to it
- extensor digitorum longus

- Tendon lies in the center of muscle
- Fibers pass to it from two sides 
- rectus femoris

Series of bipennate muscles side by side (acromial fibers of deltoid)

Tendon in the center, fibers passing from all sides (tibialis anterior)

- Chief muscle or member of chief muscle group responsible for a certain action
- quadriceps femoris in extension of knee joint

- Opposes prime mover’s action
- Must be equally relaxed for the prime mover to contract
- biceps femoris opposes quadriceps femoris in extension of knee joint

- Contracts isometrically (increase tone, but no movement produced)
- Stabilizes origin of prime mover
- rhomboid muscles & serratus anterior stabilize the scapula allowing the deltoid to act on the shoulder joint

- Stabilizes intermediate joints (through
which the prime mover passes first before the joint of its main action)
- Prevents unwanted movement in intermediate joints
- Flexor and extensor muscles of the carpus stabilize the wrist
joint, allowing the longer flexors and extensors of the fingers to work more
efficiently

Nerve Supply of Skeletal Muscles

-  Mixed nerve. __% _____ & __% _____ +
some ______________________________

region on the midpoint of the muscle’s deep surface where the nerve enters

Triangular

Round

Straight

Large

Broadest

Longest

Two heads

Four heads

Two bellies

Of the chest

Above the spine of scapula

Of the arm

Deep

Superficial

External

From sternum and clavicle to mastoid process

From coracoid process to arm

Extend

Flex

Constrict

- long, spindle-shaped cells arranged in bundles or sheets
- found in digestive tract, blood vessels, urinary bladder, uterus
- propels materials through a lumen

wave of contraction along circularly arranged fibers + contraction of longitudinal fibers

Site where two or more bones come together

- Articulating surfaces joined by fibrous tissue
- Very minimal movement is possible

Type of Joint
Sutures of Skull

Type of Joint
Inferior tibiofibular joint

- United by a plate of hyaline cartilage
- No movement possible

Type of Joint
union of diaphysis & epiphysis

Type of Joint
union of 1st rib and manubrium
sterni

- United by a plate of fibrocartilage
- Articular surfaces covered by thin layer of
hyaline cartilage
- Minimal movement possible

What type of joint?
union of vertebrae

What type of joint?
symphysis pubis

- Articular surfaces covered by thin layer of hyaline cartilage
- Separated by joint cavity lined by synovial membrane, which extends to other articulating surfaces

tough fibrous membrane that protects the synovial membrane

wedges of fibrocartilage found between articular surfaces (ex: knee joint)

Ø Factors Affecting Degree of Movement

Factors Affecting the Stability of Joints

Description: Flat articulating surfacesPlane Joints

Description: resembles hinge of a door

Description: Central bony pivot surrounded by bony ligamentous right

Description: 2 convex surfaces articulating with 2 concave surfaces

Description: Elliptical convex surface articulating with elliptical concave surface

Description: 2 reciprocally concavoconvex surfaces (like 2 pieces that fit together)

Description: Concave head of bone + socket-like concavity of another bone

What type of Joint?
Sternocleidomastoid

What type of Joint?
Acromioclavicular Joint

What type of Joint?
Elbow Joint

What type of Joint?
Knee and ankle Joint

What type of Joint?
Atlantoaxial Joint

What type of Joint?
Superior radioulnar joint

What type of Joint?
Metacarpophalangeal Joint (knuckles)

What type of Joint?
Wrist Joint

What type of Joint?
Carpometacarpal Joint of the Thumb

What type of Joint?
Hip and Shoulder Joint

A sensory nerve supplying a joint also supplies the muscles that move the joint and the skin
over insertions of those muscles.

band of connective tissue that connects two structures

- Type of ligament that prevents excessive movement
- it may stretch if stress is prolonged
- dense bundle of collagen tissues
- Iliofemoral Ligament (hips)
- Collateral Ligament (elbow)

- Type of ligament that returns to original length after stretching
- ligament in ear ossicles
- Ligamentum Flavum (vertebral column)
- Calcaneonavicular Ligament (foot)

- Closed fibrous sac containing viscous fluid
- For lubrication where tendons rub against bones, ligaments, or other tendons
- May also connect with cavity of synovial joints (ex: knee joint)

- Tubular bursa surrounding a tendon
- Function: reduce friction between tendon and surrounding structures
- Tendon invaginates bursa from one side
- Where tendons pass under ligaments and retinacula and through osseofibrous tunnels

- keeps the tendon suspended within the bursa
- allows blood vessels to enter tendon

- Mesotendon in the form of narrow threads
- Occurs where range of movement is extensive (ex: long flexor tendons of
fingers or toes)

Transport blood from the heart and distribute it to the various tissues of the body by
means of their branches. Do not have valves.

joining of branches of arteries

vessels whose terminal branches do not anastomose with branches supplying adjacent areas.

vessels whose terminal branches anastomose with those of adjacent arteries; cannot keep the tissue alive should one of the arteries  become blocked

Vessels that transport blood back to the heart; many possess valves

formed from veins made of fused smaller veins or tributaries

two veins accompany a medium-sized artery, one on each side

a system of vessels interposed between two capillary beds

where veins leaving the gastrointestinal tract converge; this enters the liver and breaks up again into sinusoids.

Microscopic vessels in the form of a network
connecting the arterioles to the venules

- thin-walled blood vessels that have an
irregular cross diameter and are wider than capillaries
- found in the bone marrow, spleen, liver,
and some endocrine glands

- Connections between the arteries and veins
without the intervention of capillaries
- Found in some areas of the body principally the tips of the fingers and toes

- Types of connective tissue that contain large numbers of lymphocytes
- Essential for the immunologic defenses of the body against bacteria and viruses

vessels whose terminal branches anastomose with those of adjacent arteries; cannot keep the tissue alive should one of the arteries  become blocked

Vessels that transport blood back to the heart; many possess valves;

formed from veins made of fused smaller veins or tributaries

two veins accompany a medium-sized artery, one on each side

a system of vessels interposed between two capillary beds

where veins leaving the gastrointestinal tract
converge; this enters the liver and breaks up again into sinusoids.

Microscopic vessels in the form of a network
connecting the arterioles to the venules

thin-walled blood vessels that have an
irregular cross diameter and are wider than capillaries

found in the bone marrow, spleen, liver,
and some endocrine glands

Connections between the arteries and veins
without the intervention of capillaries

Found in some areas of the body principally the tips of the fingers and toes

Ø  Types of connective tissue that contain large numbers of lymphocytes

Ø  Essential for the immunologic defenses of the body against bacteria and viruses

Ø  Tubes that assist the cardiovascular system in the removal of tissue fluid from the
tissue spaces of the body; vessels then return the fluid to the blood

Ø  Found in all tissues and organs of the body except the CNS, eyeball, internal ear,
epidermis of the skin, cartilage and the bone.

Lymphatic Vessels

Ø  network of fine vessels that drain lymph from the tissues. Capillaries are in turn
drained by small lymph vessels, which unite to form large lymph vessels.

carry lymph to lymph nodes

transfer lymph away from lymph nodes

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Divided into 2 main parts:

1. controls voluntary activities
2. controls involuntary activities

term given to nerve cell and all its processes

2 types of processes:
1. Receive information
2. transmits information away from the body

consists of nerve cells embedded in neuroglia

consists of nerve fibers (axons) embedded in neuroglia

Consists of the cranial and spinal nerves, made up of bundles of nerve fibers (axons)
supported by delicate areolar tissue,  and their associated ganglia

-      
A vertical bundle of nerves formed from the
roots of the lumbar and sacral nerves below the level of the termination of the
cord that resembles a horse’s tail

Each spinal nerve is connected to the
spinal cord by 2 roots: anterior and posterior

1. consists of bundles of nerve fibers carrying nerve impulses away from the CNS 
2. consists of bundles of nerve fibers carrying nerve impulses to the CNS

efferent fibers that go to the skeletal muscle and cause them to contract

fibers that are concerned with conveying information about sensation of touch, pain, temperature, and vibrations

-      
swelling on the posterior root where the
cell bodies of sensory fibers are situated.

Anterior and posterior roots unite to form
a spinal nerve at each intervertebral foramen and upon emerging divides into a
large anterior ramus and a smaller posterior ramus.

a. passes posteriorly around the vertebral column to supply the muscles and skin of the back

b. continues anteriorly to supply the muscles and skin over the anterolateral body wall and all the muscles of the skin and limbs.

- supplies the vertebrae and the coverings of
the spinal cord (the meninges)

branches of the thoracic spinal nerves which are associated with the sympathetic part of the Autonomic
Nervous System

Plexuses
- Formed, at the root of the limbs, when the
anterior rami join one another
-                 &                  are found at
the root of the upper limbs
-                and                 are found at the root of the lower limbs

Part of the nervous system concerned with the innervation of involuntary structures
such as the heart, smooth muscles, and glands throughout the body and is distributed throughout the central and peripheral nervous system.

prepares the body for an emergency

a. Accelerated heart rate, causes constriction
of the peripheral blood vessels, and raises blood pressure

b. Brings about a redistribution of the blood
(leaves areas of the skin and intestines and becomes available to the brain,
heart, and skeletal muscle.

c. Inhibits peristalsis of the intestinal
tract and closes sphincters

aim at conserving and restoring energy

a. Slow heart rate, increase peristalsis of
the intestine and glandular activity, and open sphincters.

· The name given to the lining of organs or
passages that communicates with the surface of the body.

· Consists essentially of a layer of epithelium
supported by a layer of connective tissue, the lamina propria

· Muscularis mucosa is sometimes present in
connective tissue

· Line the cavities of the trunk and are
reflected onto the mobile viscera lying within these cavities

· Consist of smooth layer of mesothelium
supported by a thin layer of connective tissue

· serous membrane lining the wall of the
cavity; developed from the somatopleure and is richly supplied by spinal nerves
therefore sensitive to all common sensations such as touch and pain

· cover the viscera; developed from the
splanchnopleure and is supplied by autonomic nerves. It is insensitive to touch
and temp. but very sensitive to stretch.

1. ______ – shaft; outer part: compact bone
2. ______ – ends; cancellous bone + thin layer of compact bone
3. ____________ – separates diaphysis & epiphysis
4. ______ – part of diaphysis adjacent to epiphyseal cartilage
5. ____________  –found inside shaft; contains bone marrow
6. ____________ – CT sheath
that covers the compact bone of the shaft

- Found in hands and feet
(ex: scaphoid, calcaneum, etc.)
- Roughly cuboidal in shape
- Cancellous bone + thin layer of compact bone
- Covered with periosteum
- Articular surfaces covered
with hyaline cartilage

Found in vault of skull
(e.g., frontal and parietal bones)

- thin inner and outer layer
of compact bone

layer of cancellous bone that separates the tables

-  Small nodules of bone found where tendons rub against bony surfaces
- Most of it is embedded in a tendon
- Free surface is covered in cartilage
- Reduces friction on tendon
- Can alter direction of pull of tendon

largest sesamoid

bundles of collagen fibers from periosteum extending into the bone

Directly from connective tissue membrane
Ex: bones of vault of the skull

From cartilage template
Ex: long bones of limbs

Ø  Matrix > fibers
Ø Plays important role in bone growth (epiphyseal plate)
Ø  covers nearly all articular surfaces of synovial joints
Ø incapable of repair when fractured; replaced by fibrous tissue instead

Ø  Matrix < collagen fibers
Ø Found
in discs within joints (ex: knee joint, temporomandibular joint)
Ø  Found in articular surfaces of clavicle and mandible
Ø  Can repair itself slowly
Ø  Joint discs have poor blood supply; cannot repair

Ø  Large number of elastic fibers embedded in matrix
Ø Found in: ear auricle, external auditory meatus, auditory tube, epiglottis
Ø  Repairs itself with fibrous tissue

Anatomical position

upper part of a structure

– lower part of a structure

at the front of the body

Posterior

Medial

Lateral

Paramedian

between 2 structures

vertical line dividing the  body into 2 equal parts

closer to the root of the limb

– farther from the root of the limb

closer to the surface of the body

within the body father from the surface

closer to the center of an organ or cavity

farther from the center of an organ or cavity

outer wall of a body cavity

covering of an organ within the ventral body

– on the same side of the body

on the opposite sides of the body

body is lying on the back

body is lying on its chest facing downward

-   vertical plane passsing through the center of the body dividing it into
left and right halves

imaginary vertical plane dividing the body into anterior and posterior

plane at right angle to the median and coronal planes dividing the body into superior and inferior

movement of a limb away from the midline of the body in the coronal plane

movement of a limb towards the midline of the body in the coronal plane

combination in the sequence of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction

forward movement

backward movement

movement of foot so its sole faces medially

sole faces laterally

Caput

Cephalon

Nuchae

Antebrachium

Carpus

Manus

Pollex

Coxa

Genu

Popliteus

Crus

Tarsus

Pes

PALPATION

INFO OBTAINED THROUGH PALPATION

OBJECTIVES OF PALPATION

Technique: Palm of the hand strokes the skin.

Technique: Back of the hand strokes the skin

Technique: Skin lifting and skin rolling between middle and index fingers and thumb.

Technique: The pads of the index and middle fingers palpate perpendicular to the edge of the bone. You may palpate the soft tissue
surrounding the bone then gradually move towards the presumed location of the
edge of the bone.

Technique: Circular palpation using finger pads of the index and middle fingers and a minimal amount of pressure.

Technique: The subject/your partner may isometrically contract against resistance to isolate the muscle. Finger pads may be used to find the largest area in the muscle.
Minimal pressure may be applied once the subject/your partner relaxes the muscle.

Technique: The subject/your partner may isometrically contract against resistance to isolate the muscle. Finger pads may be used to find the edge of the contracting muscle.
Once the edge is found, it can be steadily followed to find the course and the length of the muscle.

Technique: Place finger pads flatly and directly on the onto the point where you suspect the
tendon to be then alternately tense and relax the muscle

Technique: Initially place the ligament under tension and use direct pressure to palpate the firm and elastic consistency

Technique: A finger pad is placed flat with very little pressure over the presumed area of
the artery.