COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY TWO

• cyclical activities or behaviors that are related to distinct
• environmental features (ex. Day-Night cycles of light).

the environmental stimuli that serve as “time givers.”

Enables ecological adaptation to seasonal temperature or humidity changes.

Hibernation and migration

Mating

• Minimizing predation (don’t
• go out when the predators are about)

OR

• Maximizing predation (for
• the predator)

For early humans, the development of agriculture eventually led to the development of early clocks and calendars

3:00 am

5:00 am.

BRs based on the Moon:


BRs based on the Earth RE: the sun:

Lunar;

Tidal;

Semi-annual Lunar Cycles;

Seasonal Tides;

Spring Tides

Phases of the moon: 28 day cycle

• tides occur approximately every 12.4 hours (peak to peak). Think of beach
• animals

Seasonal Tides / Neap tides


Spring Tides

( Neap tides)




highest low tides, lowest high

tides.

(Seasonal Tides)

highest low tides, lowest high

tides.

Circadian Rhythms








Free-running rhythms

• Crepuscular
• animals –
• Circannual Rhythms

Intermittent –

• (circa = circle = around;
• dian = a day)

• Circadian Rhythms (circa = circle = around;
• dian = a day)

Also known as the 24 hour clock or as Diurnal clock

Circadian Rhythms


Also known as the 24 hour clock or as

• tested without the
• Zeitgeber

Nocturnals decrease length (- 1 hour); Diurnals increase (+ 1 hour)

• active at dawn and at
• duck.

yearly cycles

• Hibernation, migration, mating (young should be
• born when resources are maximal).

– based on flooding, rainfall, hunger, etc.

– where is the internal pacemaker?

• The location of the
• pacemaker varies in higher mammals

There are non-visual cones in the retina that connect to the SCN

• reptiles, it is very close to the surface of the back (dorsal) aspect
• of the head, in fact, in some, it can function as a third eye.

external zeitgebers = Cues

• Day length, geomagnetics, tidal, temperature, variations in availability of
• food.

• Exogenous Control Mechanisms
• Cues

• Day length, geomagnetics, tidal, temperature, variations in availability of
• food.

• theory of why we sleep
• sleep when its quiet and dark

• theory of why we sleep
• rejunvenate

• theory of why we sleep
• let’s discard this theory since normal sleep saves only about
• 110 calories (about one small cookie worth).

• measures electrical
• activity of the
• brain.

• Beta – high frequency (>
• 13 cps = Hz)

Alpha – 8 to 13 cps

Theta – 4 to 7 Hz

Delta - < 1 to 4 Hz

• wavelength:: high frequency (t> 13 cps = Hz)
• amplitutde:: low ; Out-of phase neuronal firings
• waves - asynchronous,

wavelength:: 8 to 13 cps

higher amplitude

synchronized.

• wavelenth:: 4 to 7 Hz
• higher amplitude
• synchronized.

• wave lenth:: (< 1 to 4 Hz)
• higher amplitude
• synchronized.

whether CNS neurons are firing at the same time...

• (Twilight, shallow sleep) –
• some alpha & more theta

• lots of theta; also spindles & k-complex;
• Lasts the longest…

• theta, less than 50% delta
• Slow Wave

greater than 50% delta

• aka: Paradoxical Sleep;
• aka: REM (Rapid Eye Movement)

- lots of beta and a muscular paralysis.

The brain is suddenly very active, yet the person is deeplynasleep.

• 5th Stage of Sleep;
• aka: REM (Rapid Eye Movement)

- lots of beta and a muscular paralysis.

The brain is suddenly very active, yet the person is deeplynasleep.

• 5th Stage of Sleep;
• aka: Paradoxical Sleep;

- lots of beta and a muscular paralysis.

The brain is suddenly very active, yet the person is deeplynasleep.

• During the first four stagesof sleep, decreases in heart rare, body temperature, and brain activity are seen.
• TheParasympathetic nervous system is very active.

seems to weaken synapses

• Short Wave Sleep:
• During the first four stages
• of sleep, decreases in heart rare, body temperature, and brain activity are seen. The
• Parasympathetic nervous system is very active.

noted beneath shut eyelids, the person is, for the most part, paralyzed.


the Sympathetic nervous system is very active so we see increases in heart rate, etc.

Humans report dreams

found in all higher animals

• Sleep because the presence of Beta indicates that the brain is actively
• working, yet, the person is deeply asleep and paralyzed.

noted beneath shut eyelids, the person is, for the most part, paralyzed.


the Sympathetic nervous system is very active so we see increases in heart rate, etc.

(REM sleep)

Humans report dreams

found in all higher animals

• Sleep because the presence of Beta indicates that the brain is actively
• working, yet, the person is deeply asleep and paralyzed.

sleep (seems to weaken synapses) ; a sort of neuronal Darwinism.

• seem involved in replay of events and in editing (strengthening and weakening)
• connections between neurons selecting for conversion to Long Term Memory

• while sleeping, overall brain activity
• decreases, BUT very short bursts of activity are
• generated by “Place-Denoting” neurons and played back in a sequential order

responsible for short term memory

responsible for long term memory

blocks the conversion of Short Term Memory into Long Term Memory

• changes
• that enhance the species survivability; the inherent capability of a species to adapt
• to change

• two independent species exposed to similar
• selection pressures evolve similar traits.

• mobbing
• ground nesting

• two closely related species exposed to different selection pressures may
• develop different strategies.

• exhibit divergent evolution since they diverged to occupy unfilled
• ecological niches.

• Because
• of lengthy competitive evolutionary processes between species, the mainland
• occupiers of various ecological niches will be more efficient; each niche will
• be occupied by different species.

FOUND IN: Galapagos, Hawaii and S. Pacific Islands

species typically

• have
• one well developed (optimal RE: Cost/ Benfits) defense with several backups.

• Requires
• remaining motionless since many predators have excellent motion detectors.

ex: zebra

= protective coloration = CRYPTSIS = cryptic coloration

Camouflage = CRYPTSIS = cryptic coloration

Camouflage = protective coloration cryptic coloration

Camouflage = protective coloration = CRYPTSIS

Skinner box-like device… shaped to peck target

• when
• jay detected moths on various backgrounds.
• Jays were 10 to 29% less correct when
• the moths were camouflaged.

attaching material to body for camoflage

Warnings:: signals emitted to warn of potential danger

• to
• predator – clear signal – BRIGHT easily seen and recognized colors.

Environmental objects for camouflage, dangerous animals as in Batesian mimicry, distraction…

• mimicking
• other dangerous species (mimic each other)

very poisonous mimic less poisonous.

• Related
• to mimicry, an animal uses will confuse predators – butterflies with fake heads;
• lizards’ detached tails that continue to writhe after detachment.

• “Far
• Side” cartoon of impalas with “Turbo” printed on side.

when antelopes leap straight up and land with stiff legs to advertise their amarmed state and fitness

• sensory capabilities in prey have evolved to provide
• optimal predator detection---

C/B analyses for both predator and prey

• ducks
• may sleep on one side of their brain while one eye watches
• for danger

differnt species watching out for one another, usually of a common predator

Rhinos and Tickbirds

Baboons and antelopes

You and your dog.

"watch dog"

• Species with
• a diverse genetic endowment that provides a hierarchy of several defenses against
• predation, are more likely to survive and then reproduce.

musk ox in protective circles, mobbing, stampedes, flocking, schooling, warning cries.... balancing act to keep the best group size

• decrease in probability of predator attack on any one
• prey as group size increases.

• a early American sociobiologist
• THE "SELFISH HERD"

groups whose members increase the probability of

• escape by using the
• herd as shield, distracter, or dilutor.

• the fitness
• payoff for an individual as it struggles to

• reproduce,
• depends upon the actions of other group members.

• A: Silent - B: Silent --> Each serve 6 months
• A: Silent - B: Betrays --> A: 10 years - B: FREE
• A: Betrays - B: Silent --> A. FREE - B: 10 years
• A: Betrays - B Betrays --> Each seve 5 years

• moose antlers, spiny sea urchins, porcupine, hedgehogs, certain fish, hooves,
• horns, teeth, etc.

• skunks,
• wasps, scorpions, caterpillar spray stinging spines (stone fish) and nematocyst
• stingers in the Box Jelly fish

• increasing
• the probability of a response through
• the application of reinforcing stimuli.

• lack of
• reinforcement decreases the probability of a response until it doesn’t
• occur any more.
• The probability of a response is zero.

• following extinction, time passes
• and the response reappears.

• Stimulus
• a discriminative stimulus (S^D)

• signals the availability of a reward
• or the presence of a predator.

• stimuli similar to the original stimulus
• elicits the original response.

• responses are not always identical. Some are more effective or efficient (produce more reinforcement), so
• they tend to occur more often.

• a pre-wired
• disposition to quickly learn in a specific situation (see earlier notes)

• point – aversion is to the taste and smell,
• not

• visual or auditory stimuli associated with the
• food.

Kohler with Chimpanzees

• Chimpanzees
• I have known:
• Tic-tac-toe,
• counting, match to sample, 3-D tracking, ABC

Insight learning

• Tolman and mice
• interpreted this phenomenon as
• learning without reinforcement, since they had evidently learned about the maze
• during the initial non-reinforced activities.

Latent Learning

Sceptical about the Latent learning "curiousity motive"

• two groups of mice… one
• allowed to

• experience a
• room, the other group, NOT.

• Later when placed in the room with a
• hungry owl, 2/20 of those experiencing the room earlier were caught; 11/20 of
• the group with no prior exposure to the room were caught by the owl.

incidental learning of stimuli around borrows by digger wasps…

• Learning
• how to learn--- experienced chimps vs naïve chimps.

• “This
• is a situation that perhaps if I do something, I might get reinforced.”

Learning - in Social Situations

• Observational
• learning and then Imitation

• Think
• of infants imitating the facial expressions of adults.

• step on a
• hot piece of charcoal---reflexively jerk foot away.

Courtship, Parental Care….

• hybrid
• between instinct and learning

• based of
• consequences, a stimulus comes to evoke or elicit a response.

• there are pre-wired, species-specific behaviors
• (instincts).

• Typically
• required when a stimulus should produce a response the first time it is required.

• In Lorenz’s (and Tinbergen’s) hydraulic model, variables were
• hypothesized that relate to motivation, stimuli, and responses.

• In many cases, learning was not
• essential (i.e., pre-wired)

• level of
• Reaction Specific Energy build up and overflows, or,
• a minimal

Sign Stimulus is present.

• blockage of
• the usual Fixed Action Pattern …
• Reaction Specific Energy flow triggers atypical behavior.

• Pattern s may vary slightly, so Modal
• Action Patternss are used instead (Modal
• Action Patterns s are the most frequently occurring form of a Fixed Action Pattern)

was the first moving object around little goslings.

• The
• probability of imprinting is determined by a Critical period where fear is
• relatively low and motor ability is adequate.

Stationary Object detectors and Dark detectors

• Dimming detectors and moving object
• detectors

• Flies (erratically
• moving small objects).

• The
• analysis of the visual information takes place in the brain, which, because of
• its complexity, must be programmed and “costs” a lot to operate.

Lorenz’s (SS—IRM—FAP)

• a string of
• neurons are arranged in a ring around the periphery of the animal – often
• paired with a nerve net.

• feature “ganglia” consisting of a number
• of neurons grouped together- may have information processing, decision making,
• or motor coordination functions.

• relay centers for sensory
• and motor tracts;

• information processing, coordination
• of responses.

• – an area
• consisting of densely packed nuclei

• that
• are bilaterally symmetrical.

• emotional behavior
• (fear, rage, etc.)

Gender related differences

• rhythmic cycles
• (diurnal)

is strongly involved in the endocrine system

• Sensory
• analysis – input from receptors – also

• involved in coordinating simple
• responses to stimuli… orienting reactions, visual pursuit…

visual

auditory

reflexes associated with sound and sight...

HR, attention, paths to and

from higher CNS structures.

a series of loosely interconnected structure first

• noted
• by Paul Broca.