Physio Final

760 mm Hg (at sea level)

Less than 760 mm Hg

More than 760 mm Hg

pressure within the pleura "balloon" which surrounds the lung

Pressure within the alveoli (tiny sacs) of the lung itself

• Collapsed lung
• Hole in the pleural "balloon" causes equalization of pressure and the collapse of the lung

Abnormal air in the intrapleural space, can lead to collapsed lung

• Volume is inversely proportional to pressure
• Increase in volume = decrease in pressure

Inhalation

as during exercise or pulmonary disease pectorals are used for more volume expansion of thorax

Exhalation

Simple elasticity of the lungs decreases volume and increased pulmonary pressure

Contraction of abdominal wall muscle

Relatively large, very little resistance to airflow

From medium-sized bronchioles on down, can alter diameter based on autonomic stimulation

Used to treat life-threatening bronchioconstriction such as during asthma and anaphylactic shock

• Caused by the parasympathetic system
• Inhibited by the sympathetic system

The ease with which lungs can be expanded by muscle contraction of thorax

Decreases lung compliance

Decreases lung compliance

Alveoli difficult to expand

Decreases lung compliance

The ease with which lungs can contract to their normal resting size

Decreases lung elasticity

Liquid on surface of alveoli causes them to collapse to the smallest size

Lipoproteins that reduce the surface tension on alveoli, allowing them to expand more easily

Premature babies that do not yet produce enough surfactant

Normal volume moving in/out

Volume inhaled after normal tidal volume when asked to take the deepest possible breath

Volume exhaled after normal tidal volume when asked to force out all air possible

Air that remains in the lungs even after total forced exhalation

• All areas where gas exchange does not occur
• All but alveoli

Non-functional alveoli

Anatomical and alveolar

Measures volume changes during breathing

Increased resistance to air flow

Decrease in total lung capacity

Total volume flowing in and out in 1 minute

Total volume exhaled after forceful exhalation of a deep breath

Volume measured in 1 second intervals

Oxygen molecule bound

Oxygen unbound

Below normal delivery of oxygen

CO2 binds to an amino acid on the polypeptide chains

The less oxygenated blood is, the more CO2 it can carry

As oxygen is unloaded, affinity for CO2 increases

As oxygen is loaded, affinity for CO2 decreases allowing it to be released

• Enzyme in RBC that catalyzes this reaction in both directions
• Tissues - catalyzes formation of bicarbinate
• Lungs - catalyzes formation of CO2

Formation of bicarbonate leads to lower pH m and more unloading of oxygen to tissues

Chloride ions move in opposite directions of the entering/leaving bicarbonate to prevent osmotic problems with RBC

• Bicarbonate buffer system 
• More carbonic acid = more protons so lower pH

Normal resting breath rate

Slightly inhibits medulla, causes shorter, shallower, quicker breaths

Stimulars the medulla, causes longer, deeper, slower breaths

Emotion + pain to medulla

Can override medulla as during singing or talking

Increases depth inhalation, not rate

Increase in rate and depth gradually altered to match gas exchange needs

Physiological adaptation to lower oxygen content at higher altitude

• Almost all have smoking history
• Dyspnea - chronic "gasping" for air
• Frequent coughing and infections
• Often leads to respiratory failure

• Usually results from smoking
• Enlargement and deterioration of alveoli

Mucus/inflammation of mucosa

Site of filtration of arterial blood

All the small things that we want to keep we reabsorb from the lumen of the renal tubule back into the blood stream

Unwanted molecules will go directly through/from the blood stream and directly into the urine

Forces 1/5 of blood fluid through capillary walls into glomerular capsule

• Fenestrated capillary endothilium - prevents passage of blood cells
• Basal membrane - allows most solutes but larger proteins
• Visceral membrane of glomural capsule

Rate of filtration production must be coordinated with reabsorption rate

Circular muscle around the glomerular arterioles reacts to pressure changes

Macula dense cells sense the concentration of the filtrate

• Move across luminal surface by diffusion
• Actively transported across basolateral membrane
• Diffuse into capillary by diffusion

• Na+ driven into interstitial space actively
• HCO3 and Cl- follow Na+ into the space
• Obligatory water reabsorption - water follows ions into the interstitial space (osmosis)
• Solvent drags - solutes will begin to move into tubule from filtrate, following water

• Urea, creatinine, uric acid because:
• No carrier molecule for active transport
• Not lipid-soluble
• Too large

• Closest to the glomural capsule
• Almost all glucose and amino acids
• 75-80% of water and Na+
• Most active transport of ions

• Connects proximal and distal tubules
• Regulates total water retained or lost:
• Descending limb - water can return to blood vessels
• Ascending limb - water impermeable but releases ions to the interstitial space

Final passageway

Causes increased permeability to Na+ and water, allow reabsorption

Stimulate by renin-angiotensin, enhances Na+ reabsorption

Reduces Na+ permeability, less water

Number of solute particles in 1 liter water

• Stimulate water loss
• Alcohol
• Caffeine
• Na+ reabsorption blockers

The rate at which the kidneys can remove a substance from the blood

Within the cells themselves

• Outside the cell
• Plasma - fluid portion of the blood
• Interstitial fluid - fluid bathing all cells and tissues of the body

• Released in response to:
• Decreased blood pressure
• decreased osmolarity of filtrate
• sympathetic stimulation of juxtoglomerular calls
• Function:
• Increase Na+ reabsorption at distal tube

• Located in carotid arteries and aorta
• Respond to changes in stretch due to blood pressure

• Released by cell of heart atria under high BP
• Reduces blood pressure and blood volume by inhibiting nearly all events that promote vasoconstriction and Na+/water retention

• Estrogen - increases reabsorption of Na+ in distal conveluted tube
• Glucocorticoids - Increases reabsorption of Na+ in distal tubes

Chief control when Ca++ begins to decrease too low

• Thyroid gland
• Released when Ca++ begins to increase too high

• External body membrane like skin and mucosae
• -First line of defense, prevents physical entry of microorganisms, like locking the door
• Phagocytes, antimicrobial proteins, inflammation
• -Second line of defense, after passing first it activates all kind of generic responses that are non specific

• Third line of defense
• Main components are B and T lymphocytes
• B-lymphocytes involved in humoral or antibody mediated immunity
• They take considerable time but are highley specific

• Nonspecific
• Combat pathogens which are harmful or disease-causing microorganisms

• Skin
• Mucous membranes
• When surface barriers are breached by small nicks or cuts then the microorganisms invade deeper tissues and internal innate defenses are important

• Heavily keratinized epithelial membrane is a physical barrier
• Sebum contains chemicals that are toxic to bacteria

Line all body cavities that open to the exterior including the digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts

• Nonspecific, consist of:
• Phagocytes
• Natural killer cells
• Antimicrobial proteins
• Fever
• Inflammatory responses

• Cells that engulf and eat pathogens
• Mainly macrophages
• Derived from monocytes which leave the bloodstream and enter tissue and enlarge

• Most abundant type of blood cell
• Can become phagocytic upon exposure in infectious material
• Prolonged activity may cause normal tissues become cancerous

• Weak phagocytes but are important against parasitic worms
• Discharges destructive contents of cytoplasmic granules

Involved in allergies but have some phagocytic capabilities

Has a capsule which makes adherence (grab on) difficult

• Amoeba-like digestion
• Requires adherence of the particle to the phagocyte
• Some pathogens can survive lysosomal enzymes and can multiply within

Coating of foreign particles with complement proteins and antibodies, increases adherence

• Are like nonspecific T cells
• In blood and lymph
• Can kill lyse cancer cells and virus infected body cells
• Not phagocytic, but chemicals that will enhance inflammatory respones

• Triggered by body tissue injuries like physical trauma, heat, infections etc.
• Main inflammatory mediators are histamines, kinins, prostaglandins, complement, and cytokines

• Prevents spread of damaging agents
• Disposes of cell debris and pathogens
• Sets stage of repair process
• Increases permeability of local capillaries

Redness, heat, swelling, pain and sometimes impairment of function.

Fluid containing proteins like clotting factors and antibodies flow from bloodstream into tissue spaces

The process of cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) of neutrophils binding to CAMs called selectins of the endothelial cells of capillary walls causing the neutrophils to cling to the capillary wall.

The process of neutrophils emigrating through capillary walls to the site of inflammation

The attraction of neutrophils and other white blood cells to the site of injury due to inflammatory chemicals called chemotactic agents

Become macrophages about 8-12 hours after entering the tissues. Macrophages are dominant at sites of chronic inflammation

A mixture of dead or dying neutrophils, broken down tissue cells, and living and dead pathogens

• Are sacs of pus walled off by collagen fibers
• -Contains the pis in a bubble like thing

• Same as abscess but for macrophages
• Are tumor like growths containing the macrophages infected by pathogens hiding within it surrounded by uninfected macrophages and an outer fibrous capsule

Interferes with replication of viruses, not specific

• Group of at least 20 plasma proteins that destroy foreign substances by lysis
• Amplifies inflammatory process

• Body temp is controlled by hypothalamic neurons and is set to about 36 degrees C
• High fever can denature enzymes
• Occurs when pygrogens, secreted by leukocytes and macrophages are exposed to foreign matter