-
Elements of a Sensory System
- Energy contains information about the world
- 1. Accessory structure modifies energy
- 2. Receptor transduces energy into a neural response
- 3. Sensory nerves transfer coded activity to central nervous system
- 4. Thalamus processes and relays the neural response.
- 5. Cerebral cortex receives input and produces the sensation and perception
-
Rods
- Monochrome
- More sensitive to light than cones
-
Cones
- 3 types
- respond to different wavelengths
- blue, red, green
- less sensitive
-
-
Primary Visual Cortex
- striate cortex, v1
- Two main subdivisions:
- Blobs-color sensitive
- Interblobs- oriented edge-detectors care about shape, form
- Cytoarchitecture
- -stain for cytochrome oxidase
- Fuction
- -with single-unit recording
- Connectivity
- -trace neural pathway
-
VISION
- pupil let light in
- iris controls contraction/dialation of the pupil
- light goes from the pupil to the lens which focuses the light onto the retina
- retina converts image to nerve impulses
- optic nerve composed of axons from ganglion cells
- axons left to right, vice versa
- end up at the primary visual cortex which reconstitutes the images
-
Incidence
- Dichromacy-only two cones
- Anomalous trichromacy-something wrong with the cones
•Anomalous trichromacy
–Red-green
•Protanomaly M: 1%, W: .02%
•Deuteranomaly M: 1%, W: .01%
–Blue-yellow
•Tritanomaly M: .001%, W: .03%
•Dichromacy
–Red-green
- •Proanopsia M:
- 1.3%, W: .02%
•Deuteranopsia M: 5%, W: .35%
–Blue-Yellow
•Tritanopsia M: .0001%, W: .0001%
-
Receptive Fields
- Photoreceptors-detect brightness, not pattern
- Ganglion cells-detect pattern, not brightness
-
Center-Surround Receptive Fields of Ganglion Cells
- when in light, fire action potential
- minus inhibitory
- + excitatory
-
Photoreceptors
- Brightness detectors
- Stronger post-synaptic potentials with brighter light
-
Retinal Ganglion Cells
- Edge detectors
- Edge patterns: a change from light to dark
- More action potentials with bigger difference in luminance between lighta nd dark ( contrast)
-
Mechano-receptors
Receptors that produce a neural signal when they are mechanically stimulated, or moved
-
Pacinian Corpuscles
- Fast Adapting
- Pressure Vibrations
-
Ruffini Organ
- Slowly adapting
- Directional skin-stretch
-
Merkel Disks
- Slowly adapting
- Pressures/Textures
-
Free-nerve endings
- Most common type
- Pressure
- Temperature
- Pain (nociception)
-
Proprioceptive Receptors
- 3 types for kinesthesia
- Body position sense
- -muscle stretch
- -tendon stretch
- -joint movement
- 1 type for vestibular
- -balance
- --semi-circular canals-gel filled tubes, sense equilibrium, help us keep our balance, fluid disrupted, activate hair cells
-
Nocioception
- 2 types of free-nerve endings
- A-delta fibers
- -acute sharp pain
- C-fibers
- -chronic or dull pain
- pain usually caused by tissue damage or inflammation
-
Gate control Theory
free-nerve endings fire action potentials when hit head, touch receptors in the same spot if rubbed travel together and interact touch signals inhibit pain signals, reduces the level, feels better
-
Somatosense
- Haptics
- -vibration, skin indentation, pressure
- Nociception
- -pain and temperature
- Proprioception
- -kinesthesia
- -vestibular
-
Garalesis and Knismesis
- -heavy tickling in ticklish areas that usually evokes laughter (bonding, protective, prenatal)
- -very light movement across skin (insects)
-
Sound Waves
- Amplitude is related to loudness
- Frequency/wavelength is related to pitch
-
The Auditory System
- -cochlea
- -auditory nerve
- -brainstem
- -thalamus
- ---medial geniculate nucleus
- -auditory cortex
- ---close connections with language area
-
Auditory Pathway
- auditory nerve crosses the brain's midline
- medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus
- information is then relayed to the primary auditory cortex
-
Conductive Hearing Loss
- ostosclerosis, ear drum damage, excessive ear wax
- hearing aids can help
- -amplify up to 60 db
- mainly amplify speech range
-
Sensorineural Hearing Loss
- presbycusis: old hearing
- noise-induced hearing loss
- cochlear implants may help
- -bypass hair cells and stimulate auditory nerve fibers directly
-
Patient D.F.
- Anoxia (carbon monoxide) brain damage
- small right, lower VF scotoma
- apperceptive agnosia
- -difficulty recognizing objects
- cannot read or recognize faces
- can't recognize line drawings
- describes what objects are made of
- can tell difference btwn rectangles by brightness not by shapes
- cannot judge, perceive, report width
- can use visual info for action but not perception
-
The "What" Pathway
- Other visual areas
- -contain more complex receptive fields
- Temporal Lobe
- -contains many specialized areas for recognizing various things
- Ventral (bottom) stream
- -ventral occipital lobe
- -temporal lobe
- Main function: recognition
-
The "Where" or "How" Pathway
- Parietal Lobe
- -contains many specialized areas for using vision to guide actions in space
- Dorsal (top) stream
- -dorsal occipital lobe
- -posterior parietal lobe
- Main fuctions
- -visuo-motor control (actions)
- --grasping
-
Stanford Prison Study
- prisoners and guards
- IRB approved
- stopped after 6 days people
- psychological mistreatment
- prisoners forgot it was an experiment
-
Nazi War Crimes
- freezing, malaria, strerilization, poison
- defense: similar to previous experiments done by America and Germany
- No international law document illegal human experimentation
-
Nuremburg Code
- 1948
- First international document related to human participation in experiments
- Key Points:
- participation is voluntary
- participation requires consent
- benefits must outweigh risks
-
Thalimode Tragedy
- sedative for morning sickness 1956-1961
- very harmful for fetus
- NOT approved by FDA
-
Kefauver Amendments
- 1962
- Drug manufacturers were required to prove effectiveness of their product before marketing
-
Declaration of Helsinki
- 1964 World Medical Association
- Key Points:
- informed consent if necessary
- benefits outweigh risks
- human research based on animal research
- protocols should be reviewed by a committee
- research conducted by qualified personnel
-
Tuskegee Syphilis Study
- 193-1972
- 400 African-Americans infected with syphilis
- diagnosis and treatment withheld
-
National Research Act
- 93rd US Congree 1973-1975
- Required that human subjects be protected while participating in research
- Human subjects now protected by the law
-
Belmont Report
- National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research
- 1979
- 3 ethical priniciples
- Respect for persons
- -informed consent
- Beneficence
- -benefits>risks
- Justice
- -fair selection of sample
-
Schizophrenia
- a pattern of extremely disturbed thinking, emotion, perception and behavior
- ability to communicate and relate to others is severely impaired
- most aspects of daily functioning are disrupted
- one of the most severe and disabling mental disorders
-
Positive Symptoms
- added behavior
- -hallucinations
- -delusions
- -confused thinking
- -disorganized behavior
- -self-neglect
- -inappropriate emotions
-
Negative Symptoms
- removed from behavior
- -inability to experience pleasure
- -lack of emotion
- -loss of motivation to succeed
- -problems with attention and confusion
-
Categorizing Schizophrenia
- Paranoid
- Disorganized
- Catatonic
- Undifferentiated
- Residual
- Positive versus negative symptom dimension
- Psychotic
- -hallucinations and delusions
- Disorganized
- -confused thoughts
- Negative
- -lack of motivation
-
Risk Factors for Schizophrenia
- -heredity
- -childhood head injury
- -father was >50 at conception
- -viral infection during pregnancy
- -substance abuse
- Risk factors for relapse:
- -symptoms develop slowly
- -delay treatment
- -social isolation
- -poor fam support
- -heredity
- -industrialized country
- -sex (male)
- -substance abuse
- -stop taking meds
-
Other Biological Factors for Schizo
Possible abnormalities in brain chemistry, especially in neurotransmitter systems that use dopamine
-
Psychological Factors for Schizophrenia
- not considered primary factor
- -maladaptive learning experiences
- -stressful family communication patterns
-
Treatment
- Cause unknown
- -eliminate symptoms
- -reduce relapses
- -improve level of social functioning
- negative symptoms are often resistant to treatment
- anti-psychotics
- 1st generation-haldol, thorazine
- 2nd generation-risperdal, zyprexa
- lithium (mood stabilizer)
- anti-anxiety
- anti-depressants
-
Visual Search
- using attention to select targe is affected by:
- amount of distracting information
- similarity of distractors to target
-
Change Blindness
- attention is limited capacity
- -we do not "see" everything all the time
- Attention is selective
- -sometimes selection is reflexive (automatic)
- --saliency
- -sometimes selection is controlled (voluntary)
- --we decide where to attend
-
Bottom-up/ Top-down
- B-Up
- -saliency
- -how complicated scene is
- T-down
- -expectations
- -easier if you've seen it before
- -easier if you know what to look for
-
ADHD
- attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
- symptoms:
- -impulsiveness
- -hyperactivity
- -inattention
- Co-exist with:
- conduct disorder
- bipolar disorder
- anxiety disorder
-
ADHD risk factors, treatment
- Risk factors:
- hereitability
- diet (sugar, additives)
- Treatment
- -Behavioral: self-regulation, monitoring
- -Pharmacological-stimulants
-
Hearing
- Outer ear: pinna and ear canal funnels sound waves onto the eardrum
- Middle ear: ossicles and hammer, anvil, stirrup vibrate at frequency and transmit it to the inner ear
- Inner ear: cochlea converts vibrations into neural activity
- Organ of Corti and basilar membrane have hair cells embedded in them which convert acoustic information into action potentials. sound waves travel through cochlea, pressure deflects cilia, excite hair cells, info feeds to auditory nerve, which travels to the brain.
-
Cannon-Bard Theory
- "I'm shaking and afraid at the same time"
- oncoming car->subcortical brain activity--ANS and Fear
-
Activiation Synthesis Theory
Pons transmits random signals to thalamus, relays info to the forebrain of the cerebral cortex, forebrain attempts to make story from info
-
Suicide & Depression
- -depression implicated in 40-60% of suicides
- most common 65 or older
- 3rd leading cause of death among adolescents
- leading cause of death among college students
- women attempt 3 times more
- men 4 times more successful
-
Sleep Paralysis & REM Behavior Disorder
- state of being unable to move just after falling asleep/waking up
- REM-inability to become paralyzed during REM so act out dreams
-
Wescheler Adult Intelligence Scale
- Tester calculate: verbal IQ, performance IQ, Full Scale IQ
- verbal: digital span, vocab, arithmetic comprehension
- performance: pic completion, pic arrangement, block design, puzzzle
-
AGONISTS
ANTAGONISTS
- ag-enhance receptor site activity
- (cause vesicle release, block re-uptake, directly stimulates receptors, inactivates breakdown enzyme)
- antag-inactivates receptor site activity
- (inactivates production enzyme, vesicles leaky, prevents vesicle release, blocks receptors
-
Bipolar and Cyclothymic Disorder
- alternates between depression and mania
- mania (agitated, elated, energetic)
- RF-previous episode, heredity, stress, substance abuse
- Treatments: mood stabilizers, antipsychotics, electroconvulsive shock treatment, valium
- Causes-biological-imbalance in serotonin, cortisol (stress response hormone) disruption of biological rhytms
Cyclothymic-same symptoms; mood swings are less extreme
-
Anorexia Nervosa
- Symptoms: 85% of ideal weight, distorted body image, denies weight-loss, stops menstruating
- Risk Factors: teenager, female, stressful life event, family history of obesity, depression, gymnast/model, perfectionist, low self-esteem FAMILY HISTORY, PERSONALITY TRAITS, SOCIAL FACTORS, low serotonin
-
Mood Disorders
- conditions in which a person experiences extreme moods that are not consistent with surrounding events
- RF-sex, marital unhapppiness, over 65, heredity, previous episode, stress
- T-antidepressants, electroconvulsive shock therapy, exercise, light therapy
-
Sleep Apnea
- blockage of airway during sleep
- Obstructure-most common, throat muscles are too relaxed
- Central-problem with brain's feedback mechanism
- Treatment: Continuous Positive Airway Pressure
-
Narcolepsy
- rapid onset of sleep
- 4 symtpoms: hypnagogic hallucinations, sleep paralysis, cataplexy, automatic behavior
- genetic
- treatment-stimulants, sedatives,
-
1. Acetylcholine
2. Dopamine
3. Norepinephrine
4. Serotonin
5. Gama-AminoButyric Scid
6. Glutamate
- 1. Excitatory acts on muscles (peripheral nervous system/adrenal medulla)
- 2. Inhibitory Parkinsons
- 3. Inhibitory
- 4. Inhibitory-leads to depression
- 5. Primary inhibitory
- 6. Primary excitatory
-
Axon
- transmits action potentials (cascade of opening ion channels), propogate to end of axon
- pre-synaptic side of synapse
- carries signals away
-
Somatic Nervous System
- sends messages to Central Nervous System for processing (afferent)
- sends messages from CNS to muscles to direct motion (efferent)
voluntary action
-
Nature/Nurture
- Nature-all behavior biologically determined
- Nurture-all behavior learned
-
Info Flow
info from neurons collected at dendrites, processed in cell body, passed on to axon, then to end feet passed on to target neuron
-
Behavioral Genetics
- measure the influence that these two factors have on specific behavior or mental processes
- study individual variation in behavior relate it to genetic relationship between people
-
Behaviorism
cannot study mental processes, only behavior
-
Neurotransmitter
- chemical released by one cell that binds receptors of another cell
- carries chemical message (inhibitory/excitatory)
-
Action Potential
- all or nothing electrochemical signal
- must reach threshold of excitation
- Electrochemical
- -forces exerted on molecule ions
- -voltage sensitive channels across membrane
- -sodium potassium pump Na+ K+ pumps sodium in more positive
-
Dendrites
- collect information
- INPUT
- post synaptic side of synapse
- send info to cell bodyy
- carry post synaptic potentials
-
Evolutionary Approach
- sociobiological, ethological
- behavior/mental processes determined by adaptation and natural selection
-
Subcortical Structures
- hindbrain}AUTONOMIC FUNCTIONS
- midbrain}
- -substantia nigra disconnects from basal ganglia=parkinsons
- Forebrain
- -basal ganglia
- ---striatum
- LIMBIC
- -hypothalamus-homeostasis
- -pituitary
- -hippocampus-memory
- -amygdala-emotion
- thalamus-relay station
-
Production of Neurotransmitter
- -Precursor molecule
- -Prodcution enzyme converts to transmitters
- -Moves to synaptic vesicles
- -Transmitter released from vesicle during action potential
- -Bonds with receptor
- -Left over taken up by axon
- -Breakdown enzyme converst back to precursor
-
Neurons & Glial Cells
- Neurons-specialized cells that rapidly respond to signals of their own
- Glial-cells that help hold neurons together and help neurons communicate with one another
-
Major Brain Structures
- Phylogentetic
- -ordre in which they evolved
- Hindbrain
- -cerebellum
- Midbrain
- -substantia nigra
- Forebrain
- -cortex
- -subcortical structure
-
Conditioning Over Time
Unconditioned stimulus no longer paired with Conditioned stimulus the strength of conditioned response decreases called "extinction" response re-emerges "spontaneous recovery"
-
Spatial & Temporary Resolution Tests
- S: T:
- fMRI EEG
- PET TMS
- TMS fMRI
- EEG PET
-
Classical Conditioning
- Unconditioned stimulus>>>>>unconditioned response
- neutral stimulus>>>>no response
- pair those two>>>uncoditioned response
- after
- conditioned stimulus>>>conditoned response
-
Autonomic Nervous System
control activities independent out of one's control
- Sympathetic-mobilizes body for action in face of stress
- Parasympathetic-regulates the body's functions to conserve energy
-
School of Functionalism
- William James
- what is consciousness
- behavior is evolutionary adaptation to environment
-
Basal Ganglia
movement control
-
Receptors
- proteins on the cell membrane that receive chemical signals
- recognizes certain neurotransmitters thus allowing it to begin a PSP in dendrite
-
Cell Body
- sums input
- -input reaches threshold signals axon to fire action potential
-
Nervous System
- Central Nervous System
- -brain
- -spinal cord
- Peripheral Nervous System
- -somatic
- -autonomic
- --sympathetic
- --parasympathetic
-
Synapse
- space between dendrite and axon
- carries neurotransmitters
-
Operant
- Reinforcement-increases behavior
- positive-addition of stimulus
- negative-removal of stimulus
- Punishment-decreases behavior
- positive-addition of stimulus
- negative-removal of stimulus
-
Post Synaptic Potentials
- excitatory EPSP-depolarization
- inhibitory IPSP-hyperpolarization
net polarization is the sum
-
Types of Amnesia
- Functional
- -Retrograde-cannot remember past events before incident
- -Anterograde-can't store new memories
- -Lacunar-can't remember specific past event
- -Childhood-can't remember childhood events
- Etiological:
- -organic-traumatic (head injury)
- -----temporary
- -psychological-global
- ---complete retrograde amnesia-forget everything about who you were
TRAUMATIC AMNESIA DIFFERENT FROM HM BECAUSE IT IS NEURODEGENERATIVE
-
James-Lange Theory
- I'm afraid because I'm shaking
- oncoming car-ANS-fear
-
Hypothalamus
- monitors internal state
- temperature, metabolites, hunger/satiety,
- acts like thermostat
- uses hormones through pituitary
-
Transferred Excitation Experiment
participants on high bridge judged interviewer as more attractive than participants on a low bridge
-
Short Term Storage
- capacity 7+/- items
- rehearshal increases duration
- chunking increases capacity
-
Patient H.M.
- epilepsy, remove hippocampi
- Good LTM-events prior surgery
- partial retrograde amnesia
- Good STM-digital span
- Severe anterograde-cannot form new memories
- problem encoding
- remembers classical conditioning
- can't form new explicit memories
-
Common Sense Theory
"I'm shaking because I'm afraid"
oncoming car>>fear>>>activation of autonomic nervous system
-
Reliability/Validity
- R-
- low-different results and different times
- high-same results at different times
- V-
- low: inaccurate conclusions and predictions
- high-accurate conclusions and predictions
-
Long Term Memory
- capacity extremely large, unlimited
- remember things for long periods of time
- long term memories subject to distortion
-
Implicit Memory
- unconscious
- Procedural-motor skills
- Classical Conditioning-associations
- Priming-perceptual facilitation
-
Hunger and Satiety Center
- H-Lateral Hypothalamus
- S-Ventromedial Hypothalamus
-
-
Attention
- attention controls awareness
- attended objects enter short term store
-
Aphasia
- Broca (non-fluent)-slow speech, can't find words, phoenetic distortion, in frontal lobe
- Wernicke's (fluent)-fluent speech, content is empty/inappropriate, deficit involving word meaning, in temporal lobe
-
Correlation
- relationship b/n 2 dependent variables
- quantifies strength/direction of relationship
- direction: positive/negative
- strength: 0-1
- -1 to 1 (direction)
-
Schacter's attribution Theory
oncoming car is dangerous-ANS and cognitive appraisal--conscious fear
-
Depressive Disorder/Dysthmic
- Major Depressive Disorder:
- -sad hopeless for wks/mnths
- -lose interest
- -changes in sleep/eat habits
- -thinking about suicide
- Dysthmic
- -same, less intense, longer
-
Explicit Memory
- conscious
- Episodic Memory-oriented back in time, mental time travle, past events HM cannot make these
- Semantic Memory-knowledge
-
Homeostasis
keeping state of our body maintained
-
Psychological and Brain Science (Biological)
- science seeks to understand neural substrates of behavior and mental processes
- Behavior and mental processes determined by genes, hormones, and neurotransmitters
-
Parkinson's Disease
- symptoms: tremor, rigidity, slow movement, weakness
- stages-Mild, Moderate, Advanced
- cause- unknown degeneration of substantia nigra, low dopamine
- Risk-after age 50
- Treatment L-Dopa
- dopaminergic pathway
-
Huntington's Disease
- -uncoordinated movement, rarely slow movements
- decisions, short term memory, anxiety, depression all variable among individuals
- cause: repeated section of gene HTT
- mechanism of gene unknown, only treat symptoms
-
Autism
- congenital disorder of social interactions--difficulty communicating/relating with others
- 1 in every 1000 6 in every 1000 has Autism spectrum disorder
- Psychological Factors:
- hyper-systematizing
- -inability to ascribe self/others a mental state
- executive dysfunction
- -inflexible
- weak central coherence
- -absorbed in details
- Pathophysiology:
- excess neurons-over connected
- teratogens
- abnormal synapse
- Risk-heredity, male, teratogens, MMR
- Treatments-therapy, medications, behavioral training
-
Autism Spectrum Classes
- SOCIAL INTERACTION-poor non-verbal communication, difficulty establishing friendships
- COMMUNICATION-hard to see listener's perspective
- LIMITED INTEREST IN PLAY-unusual focus on parts of an object, preoccupation on topics
-
Aspberger's Syndrome
- simliar to autism, part of spectrum
- bad social interaction, doesn't struggle with communication
-
Alzheimer's Disease
- -amyloid plaques/neurofibrilary fibers
- -targets cholinergic neurons in early stages
- -main symptom problem with memory
- -no cure
- -treat symptoms, drugs inhibit breakdown of acetylcholine
- -neuro-degenerative, neruons atrophy over time
-
Compensatory Reaction Hypothesis
- like classical conditioning
- accounts for cravings & tolerance
-
Generalization
strength of conditioned response will be weaker when the test stimulus is not the same as the conditioned stimulus
-
Lateralization
- -cognitive function that relies more on one side of the brain than the other
- -hemisphereic lateralization
- --brain function is represented solely in one hemisphere e.g. aphasia is caused by left sided brain damage suggests speech is represented in left hemisphere
-
Independent/Dependent/Correlation/Causation
- ind-manipulated
- dep-measured
- ind allows for experimenter to make statements about causation
- w/out ind results can only be correlational
|
|