A&P Final Exam Study Guide

• the body is erect with the feet slightly apart
• "standing at attention"

• Frontal plane - anterior and posterior
• Sagittal plane - right and left
• Median/Midsagittal - right and left in the middle
• Transverse - horizontally (superior and inferior)
• Oblique - diagonal

contains cranial cavity, vertebral cavity

contains thoracic cavity, abdominal cavity, pelvic cavity

contains brain

contains spinal cord

contains heart and lungs

contains heart

contains lungs

above heart

• abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity
• contains digestive viscera, urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum

contains digestive viscera

contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum

• right upper quadrant
• left upper quadrant
• right lower quadrant
• left lower quadrant

• Umbilical - centermost region
• Epigastric - above umbilical region
• Hypogastric (pubic) - below umbilical region
• R&L Iliac - lateral to hypogastric region
• R&L Lumbar - lie lateral to umbilical region
• R&L Hypochondriac - lateral to epigastric [deep to ribs]

branch of anatomy dealing with the microscopic  structure of tissues

• The net effect is that the output of the system shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity
• The most common homeostatic control mechanism

Feedback that tends to cause the level of a variable to change in the same direction as an initial chanage

A state of body equilibrium or stable internal environment of the body

• outermost protective shield of the body
• composed of epithelial cells
• protection

• deeper than epidermis
• tough, leathery layer composed mostly of fibrous connective tissue

subcutaneous tissue just deep to the skin

• thin superficial areolar tissue
• top of dermis
• contains dermal papillae, friction ridges

projections of dermal tissue into the epidermis

assumed to enhance the gripping ability of the fingers and feet like tire treads help grip the road

• 80% of dermis
• cutaneous plexus - nourishes this layer (between hypodermis and reticular layer)
• contains cleavage lines, flexure lines

• represent separations between underlying collagen fiber bundles in the reticular regionof the dermis
• circle around trunk - longitudinal in limbs

• lines form where the dermis is closely attached to the underlying fascia
• ex: lines in hands

• flexible strands produced by hair follicles
• consist largely of dead, keratinized cells
• 3 layers - medulla, cortex, cuticle

makes hair stand up

• epidermal gland that produces sweat
• eccrine sweat glands - palms, soles of the feet, and forehead
• appocrine sweat glands - axillary and anogenital

epidermal glands that produce an oil secretion called sebum

• Protection: chemical barriers (acid mantle) - physical barriers - biological barriers (dendritic cells, macrophages, DNA)
• Body Temperature Regulation: perspiration
• Metabolic Functions:
• Blood Reservoir
• Excretion

elongated shaft of the long bone

the end of a long bone, attached to the shaft

plate of hyaline cartilage at the junction of the diaphysis and epiphysis that provides for growth in length of a long bone

• Also called Osteon
• System of interconneting canals in the microscopic structure of adult compact bone

• fat- or blood-forming tissue found within bone cavities
• red (epiphysis) or yellow (shaft) bone marrow

stem cell

Matrix-synthesizing cell responsible for bone growth

Mature bone cell that monitors and maintains the mineralized bone matrix

Bone-resorbing cell

skull, vertebrae, ribs

arms, legs, pelvic gurdle, pectoral gurdle

floating bone, attached to tongue

• seven vertebrae
• neck bones
• mouse shaped

• C1
• top cervical vertebrae

• C2
• second from top cervical vertebrae

• middle vertebrae
• 12 vertebrae
• giraffe shaped

• lowest vertebrae
• five vertebrae
• moose-like

• triangular bone
• below lumbar vertebrae

• bottom of sacrum
• tailbone

lateral curvature of the spine

• dorsal thoracic curvature of the spine
• hunchback

• dorsal, lumbar cuvature of the spine
• swayback

rupture of the anulus fibrosus followed by a protrusion of the spongy nucleus pulposus through the anulus

foot (phalanges, tarsals, metatarsals), tibia, femur

• single muscle fiber contains hundreds to thousands of rod-like myofibrils that run parallel to its length
• [red, actin-binding sites]

• smallest contractile unit of muscle
• extends from one Z disc to the next
• "muscle segment"

• a repeating series of dark (A bands) and light (I bands) bands, evident along the length of each myofibril
• H zone - midsection of A band (M line - dark line, bisects H zone)
• Z disc - midline interruption of I band

• Thick filaments - myosin (walking heads)
• Thin filaments - actin, tropomyosin, troponin
• Elastic filaments - titan

• bear the active sites to which the myosin heads attach during contraction
• [blue, kidney-shaped polypeptide subunit]

• rod-shaped protein, spiral about the actin core and help stiffen and stabilize it
• helix around actin

three-polypeptide complex

• When the nervous system stimulates muscle fibers, the myosin heads on the thick filaments latch onto myosin-binding sites on actin in the thin filaments, and the sliding begins
• These cross bridge attachments form and break several times during a contraction, acting like tiny ratchets to generate tension and propel the thin filaments toward the center of the sarcomere
• As this event occurs simultaneously in sarcomeres throughout the cell, the muscle cell shortens

ropelike, muscle connective tissue wrappings

sheetlike, muscle connective tissue wrappings

• 1. Action potential arrives at axon terminal of motor neuron.
• 2. Voltage-gated Ca2+channels open. Ca2+ enters the axon terminal moving down its electochemical gradient.
• 3. Ca2+ causes AChto be released by exocytosis.
• 4. ACh diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to its receptors on the sarcolemma.
• 5. ACh binding opens ion channels in the receptors that allow simultaneous passage of Na+ into the muscle fiber and K+ out of the muscle fiber. More Na+ ions enter than K+ ions exit, which produces a local change in the membrane potential called the end plate potential.
• 6. ACh effects are terminated by its breakdown in the synaptic cleft by acetyholinesterase and diffusion away from the junction

• 1. The action potential propagates along the sarcolemma and down the T tubules
• 2. Calcium ions ares released
• 3. Calcium binds to troponin and removes the blocking action of tropomyosin
• 4. Contraction begins

• 1. Cross bridge formation
• 2. The power (working) stroke
• 3. Cross bridge detachment
• 4. Cocking of the myosin head

• Even relaxed muscles are slightly contracted
• - does not produce active movements, but it keeps the muscles firm, healthy, and ready to respond to stimulation
• This is due to spinal reflexes that activate first one group of motor units and then another in response to activated stretch receptors in the muscle

nerve cells

• major biosynthetic center of a neuron and receptive region
• spherical nucleus with a conspicuous nucleolus surrounded by cytoplasm

• Receptive regions
• short, tapering, diffusely branching extensions

• impulse-generating and impulse-conducting region
• a slender process that is uniform in diameter for the rest of its length
• Axon hillock - initial region of the axon ("little hill")
• Nerve fiber - any long axon

myelin sheath gap

• 1. Resting State: all gated Na+ and K+ channels are closed
• 2. Depolarization: Na+ channels open
• 3. Repolarization: Na+ channels are inactivating, and K+ channels open
• 4. Hyperpolarization: some K+ channels remain open, and Na+ channels reset

• 1. Action potential arrives at axon terminal
• 2. Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open and Ca2+ enters the axon terminal
• 3. Ca2+ entry causes synaptic vesicles to release neurotransmitter by exocytosis
• 4. Neurotransmitter diffused across the synaptic cleft and binds to specific receptors on the postsynaptic membrane
• 5. Binding of neurotransmitter opens ion channels, resulting in graded potentials
• 6. Neurotransmitter effects are terminated by reuptake through transport proteins, enzymatic degradation,or diffusion away from the synapse

• Cerebral Cortex, "executive suite" - motor areas, sensory areas, association areas - contralateral
• Cerebral White Matter - responsible for communication between cerebral areas - myelinated fibers: assocation fibers, commissural fibers, projection fibers
• Basal Nuclei -

• Thalamus - relay station for information coming into the cerebral cortex
• Hypothalamus - main visceral control center of the body
• Epithalamus - pineal gland: secretes melatonin

• Midbrain - relays information for vision and hearing, dopamine production
• Pons - composed of conduction tracts
• Medulla Oblongata - cardiovascular center, respiratory centers

• "small brain"
• thinking, language, emotion

• CNS: brain and spinal cord - integrative and control centers
• PNS: cranial nerves and spinal nerves - communication lines between the CNS and the restof the body

• SNS: somatic motor (voluntary) - conducts impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscles
• ANS: visceral motor (involuntary) - conducts impulses from the CNS to cardiac muscles, smooth muscles, and glands

• Sympathetic division: mobilizes body systems during activity
• Parasympathetic: conserves energy - promotes house-keeping functions during rest

long-distance chemical signals; travel in blood or lymph

• Parathyroid gland
• Enhancesreabsorption of Ca2+ by the kidneys
• Stimulates osteoclasts to digest some of the bony matrix and release ionic calcium and phosphates to the blood
• Promotes activation of vitamin D, thereby increasing absorption of Ca2+ by intestinal mucosal cells

• tissue building hormone with metabolic and growth-promoting actions
• From pituitary

• follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone
• Regulate the function of the gonads (ovaries and testies)

• T3/T4
• body's major metabolic hormone: increasing metabolic rate, regulating tissue growth and development, maintaining blood pressure

controls red blood cell production

hemocytoblasts - forms myeloid stem cell or lymphoid stem cell

creates T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes (some become plasma cells, some become effector T cells)

• Becomes myeloblasts or monoblasts
• Monoblast - (promonocyte) monocytes, some becomes macrophages
• Myeloblast - become eosinophils, basophils, nerutrophils

• Eosinophils
• Basophils
• Neutrophils

• Monocytes
• B lymphocytes
• T lymphocytes

• Type AB - contains agglutinogens A and B
• Type A - contains agglutinogens A
• Type B - contains agglutinogens B
• Type O - no agglutinogens

• Fast series of reactions for stoppage of bleeding
• requires clotting factors, and substances released by platelets and injured tissues
• 3 steps: vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, coagulation (blood clotting)

• Coverings of the heart
• Fibrous pericardium - (superficial) protects, anchors, prevents overfilling
• Serous Pericardium - parietal layer: lines internal surface - visceral layer: external surface - separated by pericardial cavity

• Epicardium - visceral layer of serous pericardium
• Myocardium - - spiral bundles of contractile cardiac muscle cells - cardiac skeleton
• Endocardium - lines heart chambers; covers cardiac skeleton of valves

• Two superior atria
• Two inferior ventricles
• Interatrial septum - separates atria
• Intraventricular septum - separates ventricles

• Three veins empty into right atrium
• Four pulmonary veins empty into left atrium

• right - most of anterior surface
• left - posterioinferior surface
• Trabeculae carneae - irregular ridges of muscle on walls
• Papillary muscles - anchor chordae tendineae

• Tricuspid valve - right atrioventricular valve
• Mitral valve (bicuspid) - left atriventricular valve
• Chordae tendineae - anchor cusps to papillary muscles
• 2 semilunar valves - prevent backflow into ventricles when ventricles relax

vena cava - right atrium - right ventricle - pulmonary trunk - lungs - pulmonary arteries - four pulmonary veins - left atrium - left ventricle - aorta - to body - vena cava

• right atrium - tricuspid valve - right ventricle
• right ventricle - pulmonary semilunar valve - pulmonary trunk - pulmonary arteries - lungs
• lungs - pulmonary veins - left atrium

• left atrium - mitral valve - left ventricle
• left ventricle - aortic semilunar valve - aorta
• aorta - systemic circulation

• Distributing substances
• Regulating blood levels of substances
• Protection

• return interstitial fluid and leaked plasma proteins back to blood
• Lymphatic capillaries
• Collecting lymphatic vessels
• Lymphatic trunks
• one-way system

• specialized lymph capillaries present in intestinal mucosa
• Absorb digested fat and deliver fatty lymph to the blood

• similar to veins except, thinner walls with more internal valves
• collecting vessels in skin travel with superficial veins
• deep vessels travel arteries
• lymphatic vessels drain into lymphatic trunks

• Right lymphatic duct - drains right upper arm and right side of head and thorax
• Thoracic duct - drains rest of body
• Each empties lymph into venous circulation at junction of internal jugular and subclavian veins on its own side of body

• Milking action of skeletal muscle
• Pressure changes in thorax during breathing
• Valves to prevent backflow
• Pulsations of nearby arteries
• Contractions of smooth muscle in walls of lymphatics

• main warriors of immune system
• Matures into T cells or B cells

• Manage immune response
• Attack and destroy infected cells

Produce plasma cells which secrete antibodies

• phagocytize foreign substances
• help activate T cells

capture antigens and deliver them to lymph nodes

• Filter lymph
• Immune activation - lymphocytes activated and mount attack against antigens
• Medullary cords extend inward from cortex and contain B cells, T cells, and plasma cells
• Lymph sinuses contain macrophages

• Site of lymphocyte proliferation and immune surveillance and response
• Cleanses blood of aged cells and platelets, macrophages remove debris
• Stores products of RBC destruction for reuse
• Stores platelets and monocytes until
• needed

• Important functions early in life
• Increases in size and most active during childhood

• Lymphoid tissues in mucous membranes throughout body
• MALT in - tonsils, Peyer's patches, appendix
• Protects from pathogens trying to enter body
• Also in mucosa of respiratory and genitourinary organs; rest of digestive tract

• Gather and remove pathogens from food and air
• Form ring of lymphatic tissue around pharynx
• (Palatine tonsils, Lingual tonsil, Pharyngeal tonsil-adenoid, Tubal tonsils)

• Clusters of lymphoid follicles
• In wall of distal portion of small intestine
• Similar structures are also found in the appendix
• Peyer's patches and appendix: destroy bacteria, preventing them from breaching intestinal wall, generate "memory" lymphocytes

• Innate defenses: surface barriers, internal defenses
• surface barriers (skin, mucous membranes)
• internal defenses (phagocytes, natural killer cells, inflammation, antimicrobial proteins, fever)
• Adaptive defenses: Humoral immunity (B cells), Cellular immunity (T cells)

• Surface barriers ward off invasive pathogens
• Protective chemicals inhibit or destroy microorganisms (acidity of skin and secretions)

• 1. Phagocyte adheres to pathogens or debris
• 2. Phagocyte forms pseudopods that eventually engulf the particles, forming a phagosome
• 3. Lysosome fuses with the phagocytic vesicle, formin a phagolysosome
• 4. Lysosomal enzymes digest the particles, leaving a residual body
• 5. Exocytosis of the vesicle removes indigestible and residual material

• 1. Lekocytosis - neutrophils enter blood from bone marrow
• 2. Margination - neutrophils cling to capillary wall
• 3. Diapedesis - neutrophils flatten and squeeze out of capillaries
• 4. Chemotaxis - neutrophils follow chemical trail

• Attack cells that lack "self" cell-surface receptors
• Induce apoptosis in cancer cells and virus-infected cells
• Secrete potent chemicals that enhance inflammatory response

• Triggered whenever body tissues injured
• Prevents spread of damaging agents
• Disposes of cell debris and pathogens
• Alerts adaptive immune system
• Sets the stage for repair

• Abnormally high body temperature
• Systemic response to invading microorganisms
• Leukocytes and macrophages exposed to  foreign substances secrete pyrogens
• Pyrogens act on body's thermostat in hypothalamus, raising body temperature

infection; contact with pathogen

vaccine; dead or attenuated pathogens

Antibodies passed from mother to fetus via placenta; or to infant in her milk

Injection of exogenous antibodies (gamma globulin)

• movement of air into and out of lungs
• Respiratory system

• O2 and CO2 exchange between lungs and blood
• Respiratory system

• O2 and CO2 in blood
• Circulatory system

• O2 and Co2 exchange between systemic blood vessels and tissues
• Circulatory system

• Provides an airway for respiration
• Moistens and warms entering air
• Filters and cleans inspired air
• Serves as resonating chamber for speech
• Houses olfactory receptors
• Divided by midline nasal septum

• nasal cavity superior to nostrils
• skin containing sweat and sebaceous glands and hair follicles

• protrude medially from lateral walls
• increase mucosal area
• enhance air turbulence (help filter out large particles before air reaches the lungs)
• filter, heat, moisten air
• Nasal Meatus: Groove inferior to each nasal concha

Inflammation of nasal mucosa

• Connects nasal cavity and mouth to larynx and esophagus
• Nasopharynx
• Oropharynx
• Laryngopharynx

• Provides airway
• Routes air and food into proper channels
• Voice production—houses vocal folds (cords)
• Attaches to hyoid bone
• All hyaline cartilage except epiglottis

• elastic cartilage
• covers laryngeal inlet during swallowing; covered in taste bud-containing mucosa

• form true vocal cords
• appear white because they lack blood vessels
• vibrate to produce sound as air rushes up from lungs

• (false vocal cords)
• superior to vocal folds
• no part in sound production
• help to close glottis during swallowing

• Windpipe
• Trachealis muscle - connects posterior parts of cartilage rings - contracts during coughing to expel mucus
• Carina - point where trachea branches into two main bronchi

Trachea - right and left main bronchi - lobar bronchi (three on right, two on left) - segmental bronchi

• terminal bronchioles - respiratory bronchioles - alveolar ducts - alveolar sacs
• Alveoli - sites of gas exchange - make up most of lung volume

• Parietal pleura - on thoracic wall, superior face of diaphragm, around heart, between lungs
• Visceral pleura - on external lung surface
• Pleural fluid - fills slitlike pleural cavity - provides lubrication and surface tension, which assists in expansion and recoil

• Inspiration - gases flow into lungs
• Expiration - gases exit lungs

• Gases fill container; if container size reduced, the pressure increases
• P1V1=P2V2

Total pressure exerted by mixture of gases = sum of pressures exerted by each gas

Gas mixtures in contact with liquid: each gas dissolves in proportion to its partial pressure - amount of each gas that will dissolve depends on solubility and temperature

• Emphysema - enlargement of alveoli, causes lungs to lose elasticity
• Chronic Bronchitis - production of excessive mucus

• Gastrointestinal tract - extends from the mouth to the anus, along with accessory glands
• brings food into the body - digest it into nutrients that are absorbed by the body - eliminate wastes out of the body

• mouth
• esophagus
• stomach
• small intestine
• large intestine
• anus

• Salivary glands (enzymes)
• Pancreas (enzymes)
• Liver (bile)
• Gallbladder

• Ingestion
• Mechanical Breakdown
• Propulsion
• Digestion
• Absorption
• Defacation

• serous membrane of abdominal cavity
• Visceral/Parietal peritoneum

• (Lines lumen)
• Secrets mucus, digestive enzymes, and hormones - absorbs end products of digestion - protects against infectious disease

• Simple columnar epithelium and mucus-secreting cells (most of tract)
• Mucus: protects digestive organs from enzymes – eases food passage
• may secrete enzymes and hormones

Oral cavity

recess internal to lips (labia) and cheeks, external to teeth and gums

median attachment of each lip to gum

• Repositioning and mixing food during chewing  - Formation of bolus - Initiation of swallowing, speech, and taste
• Intrinisic muscles change shape of tongue
• Extrinsic muscles alter tongue's position

• Produce most saliva
• lie outside oral cavity

• scattered throughout oral cavity
• augment slightly

• Cleanses mouth
• Dissolves food chemicals for taste
• Moistens food; compacts into bolus
• Begins breakdown of starch with enzymes
• (slightly acidic)

• passage that connects the pharynx to the stomach.
• no digestive processes occur here.
• food is moved along via peristalsis.

• "heartburn" occurs when partially digested food comes back up into the esophagus and
• produces a burning sensation

• Stores food
• Adds digestive enzymes and acids that begin chemical digestion of proteins
• Turns food into a soupy mixture called chyme

begins the digestion of proteins

• 6 meters long
• primary site of digestion

• water, salts, and vitamins are absorbed 
• feces stored until excreted from the body

digests lipids

starches into sugars

• largest portion of the large intestine
• contains beneficial bacteria which act on indigestible material, product B complex vitamins, and most of the vitamin K needed for clotting of blood

• Renal fascia = "anchors" kidney
• Perirenal fat capsule = cushions kidney
• FIbrous capsule = prevents infections from surrounding area

paired tubes that transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder

a temporary storage reservoir for urine

a tube that carries urine from the bladder to the body exterior

aorta - renal artery - segmental artery - interlobar artery - arcuate artery - cortical radiate artery - afferent arteriole - glomerulus (capillaries) - efferent arteriole - Pertibular capillaries - cortical radiate vein - arcuate vein - interlobar vein - renal vein - inferior vena cava

• Renal corpuscle/glomerulus - fed and drained by afferent and efferent arterioles - filtration unit
• Renal tubule - begins in cortex, passes into medulla - 3 parts - reabsorb water and solutes needed by the body

• 1. Glomerular Filtration
• 2. Tubular Reabsorption
• 3. Tubular Secretion