-
Macromolecule
Large Molecules
-
Whar are the 4 large molecule groups?
Whick one is not a macromolecule?
- Carbohydrates
- Proteins
- Nucleic Acids
- Lipids - not a macromolecule group
-
Polymers
- Greek - Polys (many) and meris (part) Many parts
- Long molecule consisting of many similar or identical builing blocks linked by covalent bonds (train consists of cars)
-
Monomers
Smaller molecules that often make up the building blocks of polymers
-
dehydration synthesis
- Building
- also called a condensation reaction or a dehydration reaction
- Two monomers covalently bonded to one another thorugh the loss of a water molcule
- Both momomers contribute part of the water molecule that is lost (one contributes -OH and one -H)
- Energy is used
- 1 molecule of water is realeased
- Extra Energy is stored in the bonds
- Some energy is lost as heat
-
Hydrolysis
- Breaking Down
- Greek hydro (water) lysis (break) To break down using water
- Bonds are broken by the attition of a water molecule and a polymer separates into monomers
- 1 water molecule is used
- 1 bond is broken
- entergy is relased
-
Carbohydrates
Charbohydrates -Sugars and polymers of sugars
-
Monosaccharides
- simple sugars
- Glucose is the most common -C6H12O2 Fructose is a isomer of glucose
- A sugar molecule has a corbonyl group and multible hydroxyl groups. Depending on location of carbonyl group the sugar is either aldose (aldehyde sugar) or ketose (ketone sugar)
-
How are sugars classifies?
- Size of the carbon skeleton - ranges from three to seven carbons long
- Glucose, fructose have six carbons are called hexoses
- three carbon sugars are called trioses
- five carbon sugars are called pentoses
-
Disaccharides
- double sugars, two monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkage ( a covalent bond by dehydration synthesis)
- Maltose, Sucrose (table sugar), lactose
-
Polysaccharides
Two types of polysaccharides
Macromolecules, polymenrs composed of many sugars joined by glycosidic linkage
- Storage Polysaccharides
- Structure Polysaccharides
-
Storage Polysaccharides
- Plants store surplus glucose as a polysaccharide called Starch
- Animals store a polysacchride called Glycogen - stored as granules in the liver and muscles
-
Structural Polysaccharides
- Organisms build strong materials from structural polysaccharides
- Plants - Cellulose (polysaccharide) is the major component of the tough walls that enclose plant cells- insoluable fiber **Cellulose is the most abundant organic compound on earth
- Animals - Chitin - exoskeleton of insects and crustaceans
-
Lipids
- Not Macromolecules
- Mostly Hydrophobic - no monomers
- Fats, Steroids, Phospholipids, waxes
-
Fats
- Lipid - hydrophobic - not a macromolecule
- Fats are storage for animals - can store twice as much potential energy than other storage
- A fat is formed by a glycerol (alcohol w/ 3 carbons-each with a hydroxly group) with three fatty acids (Long carbon chains -16 to 18 carbons- with a carboxyl group (acid) - triglyceride
- (Carbon chain surrounded by Hydrogen)
-
Saturated Fat
- Normally solid at room temperature
- Animal Fat - bacon fat, butter, lard
- Hydrocarbons - where there are no double bonds between carbons then as many hydrogen atoms as possible are bonded to the carbon skeleton - saturated with hydrogen
- The "tails" of fat have no double bonds are very flaxible - can be tightly packed (solid)
-
Unsaturated Fat
- Oils - liquid at room temperature
- Hydrocarbon - has one or more double carbon bonds - kinks where Cis double bonds forms -
- tails are not able to be tightly packed together so stays as liquid
-
Trans fats
- Unsaturated fats are atrifically pumped full of hydrogen atoms to make them saturated. This process makes saturated fats and unsaturated fats with a trans double bond.
- Saturated and Trans fats cause plaque (deposits within the wall off a blood vessel that cause invard bulges and decreases blood flow)
-
Phospolipids
- Make up the cell membrane - essential for cells
- One glycerol (alcohol w/3 carbons each has a hydroxyl group) attached to two fatty acids (hydrocarbon with a carboxyl group) third hydroxyl group is attached to a phosphate group
- Polar heads are hydrophyllic
- Hydrocarbon tails are hydrophobic
- Form a bilayer with head out and tails that is essential for call membrane
-
Steroids
- Lipid - not a macromolecule - sex hormones
- Carbon skeleton consisting of 4 fused rings
- Cholesterol is an essential steroid in the liver that synthesizes other steroids (sex hormones)
- Secondary sexual Characteristics - artifical steroids cause wrong sex hormones to be produced - women grow hair on face, mens testicles shrink
-
Protein
- Macromolecule - can not be constructed without amino acids
- 75,000 proteins in our body are made from different combonations of 20 Amino Acids. Every living thing has 20 amino acids.
- Amino Acids are joined by Peptide Bonds to form Polypeptides- Peptide bonds only work for Amino Acids - the carboxyl groups of one Amino Acid joins the amino group of amother through dehydration systhesis
- Proteins consist of one or more polypeptides twisted, folded, and coiled into a molecule of unique shape.
-
Peptide Bonds
- Amino Acids are joined by Peptide Bonds to form Polypeptides- Peptide
- bonds only work for Amino Acids - the carboxyl groups of one Amino Acid
- joins the amino group of amother through dehydration systhesis
-
Polypeotides
Polymers of amino acids. A protein is made of one or more polypeptide chains twisted, folded, and coiled into molecule of unique shape
-
Two shapes of proteins
- globular (roughly spherical)
- fibrous (long fibers)
-
Form and Function of Proteins
Form equals function. Proteins are polypeptides that are folded, twisted and coiled into specific shapes for specific purposes
-
Four levels of protein structure
- 1)Primary structure - Unique amino acid sequence (amino end and carboxyl end) - problems if not in the right order (cicle cell anemia)
- 2)Secondary structure - pleating, coiling and folding aided by Chaperonin - surrounds and protects the proteins that are folding. Misfolding results in Alzheimers, Parkinsons
- 3)Tertiary structure - 3D shape - hydrophobic interations - as a polypeptide folds amino acids with hydrophobic side chains end up clusted in the middle. Mad cow disease is caused by misshapen tertiary structure
- 4)Quarternary - 2 or more polypeptides (subunit) combine to form a unit
-
Denaturation reaction
- When a protein is unraveled or loses its native shape - some are irreversible. The denatured protein is biologically inactive.
- 1)Extreme changes in temperature - ex. Ovalbumin (egg whites) when cooked
- 2)Extreme changes in pH - body pH over 7.8 results in death
- 3)Extreme changes in salt concentration - dehydration = high salt concentration
-
8 Functions of Proteins
- 1) Enzymes - most important - speed up chemical reacions -digestive enzymes
- 2) Structural proteins - support - hair & tentons
- 3) Contractile proteins - movement - muscles
- 4) Defense proteins - protect against disease - antibodies combat bacteria and viruses
- 5) Signal proteins - Hormones - insulin (a hormone secreted by the pancreas regulates sugar in the body)
- 6) Receptor proteins - in the cell membrane - can detect chemical signals sent by other cells
- 7) Transport proteins - hemoglobin transports oxygen to all parts of body
- 8) Storage proteins - storage of amino acids - ovalbumin (egg white) is amino acid source for the embryo
-
R group
variable group or side chain attached to an amino acid that differs with each amino acid
-
Nucleic Acid
- Macromolecule - enables living organisms to reproduce their complex components from one generation to the next (DNA & RNA)
- Its monomer is a nucleotide - polymers are polynucleotides
-
Dr. Linus Pauling
- Nobel prize for chemistry 1954
- Nobel prize for peace 1963
- Only person ever to be awarded two unshared nobel prizes
- Described alpha helix and pleated sheet in seconday protein structure
Watson & Crick given nobel prize for structure of DNA
-
gene
unit of inheritance that programs the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide
-
DNA
- Deoxyribonucleic acid
- genetic material that organisms inherit from their parents
- *DNA provides directions for its own replication
- *DNA directs RNA sysntesis and, through RNA, contols protein synthesis
-
Nucleotide and its 3 parts
Nucleoside
- Nucleotide is the building blocks of polynucleotides - Nucleic Acids
- 1)Nitrogenous Base - pyrimadines or purine
- 2)Pentose (5 carbon) sugar - ribose for RNA and deoxyribose for DNA
- 3)Phosphate group
- The porton of this group without the phosphate group is called a nucleoside (nitrogenous base and sugar)
-
Two families of Nitrogenous bases
- used to build nucleotides (used to build nucleic acid)
- 1) pyrimidine - six-membered ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms
- a) cytosine (C)
- b) thymine (T)
- c) Uracil (U)
- 2) pruines - larger, six membered ring fused to a five membered ring
- a) Adenine (A)
- b) Guanine (G)
-
prime (')
sugars in a nitrogenous base are numbered - second carbon in a sugar rings is 2' (2prime) and the carbon that sticks up from the ring is a 5' carbon
-
How are nucleotides linked to form a polynucelotide?
- a phosphate group that links the sugars of two nucleotides (backbone with a repeating pattern of sugar-phosphate units)
- the two end are distinctly different - one end has a phosphate attached to a 5' carbon and the other end has a hydroxly group on a 3' carbon
- In DNA sugar-phosphate backbone on the outside with nitrogenous bases paired on the inside (links between the double helix)
- 5' - Phosphate group
- 3' - Hydroxly group
-
Complementary Pairs
- DNA
- A - T Adenine - Thymine
- T - A Thymine - Adenine
- C - G Cytosine - Guanine
- G - C Guanine - Cytosine
- RNA
- A - U Adenine - Urasil
- U - A Urasil - Adenine
- C - G Cytosine - Guanine
- G - C Guanine - Cytosine
-
Transcription
Replication
- Process by which DNA synthesizes RNA
- DNA is the boss
- Replication - Mitosis - process by which a cell separates DNA into two identical sets
- Replication is caused by
- Disease
- Damage
- Death
- Growth
-
mRNA
tRNA
rRNA
- messanger RNA (synthesized in the nucleus)
- transfer RNA (fouund in the cytoplasm)
- ribosomal RNA (found in the nucleolus)
|
|