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The Respiratory System:
What are the main functions?
There are four processes that belong to two categories called...?
What does it also function in?
- - supplies blood with O2 for cellular respiration; disposes CO2, a waste product of cellular respiration.
- - Both respiratory and circulatory systems
- - Also functions in olfaction and speech.
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Processes of Respiration : Respiratory system
There are two parts...?
Go into detail.
- - Pulmonary ventilation (breathing) : movement of air into and out of lungs.
- - External respiration : O2 and CO2 exchange between lungs and blood.
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Processes of Respiration: Circulatory system
There are two parts...?
go into detail..
- - Transport of respiratory gases : O2 transported from the lungs to the tissue cells of the body. CO2 is transported from the tissue cells to the lungs.
- - Internal respiration : O2 and CO2 exchange between systematic blood vessels and tissues.
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Respiratory System : Functional Anatomy
What are the major organs! (6-ish)
*look @ book for more detail*
- - Nose, nasal cavity, and paranasal sinuses.
- - Pharynx
- - Larynx
- - Trachea
- - Bronchi and their branches.
- - Lungs and alveoli
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Functional Anatomy
What happens in the Respiratory zone?
Which structures does it have?
- - site of gas exchange.
- - microscopic structures - respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli.
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Functional Anatomy
What happens in the conducting zone and what does it include?
What helps promote ventilation?
- - conduits to gas exchange sites. Includes all other respiratory structures; cleanses, warms, humidifies air.
- - Diaphragm and other respiratory muscles.
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The Nose
What are its functions? (5)
- - provides and airway for respiration
- - Moistens and warms entering air
- - Filters and cleans inspired air
- - Serves as resonating chamber for speech.
- - Houses olfactory receptors.
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The Nose
What are the two regions?
Go into detail.
- - External and Nasal cavity.
- - External Cvty. : root, bridge, dorsum nasi and apex.
- - Nasal Cvty. : within the posterior to external nose, divided by midline nasal septum.
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Nasal cavity:
What's the nasal vestibule and what does it include?
What is the rest of nasal cavity lined with?
- - nasal cavity superior to nostrils. Includes Vibrissae (hairs) filter coarse particles from inspired air.
- - Mucous membranes : Olfactory mucosa; Respiratory mucosa.
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Nasal Cavity:
What does the Olfactory mucosa contain?
What about the Respiratory mucosa?
- - Olfactory : olfactory epithelium.
- - Respiratory mucosa : cilia which moves contaminated mucus posteriorly to throat. Inspired air warmed by plexuses of capillary and veins. Sensory nerve ending trigger sneezing.
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Paranasal Sinuses :
Where is this located at?
What are its purpose?
- - In frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid and maxillary bones.
- - Lightens skull, secretes mucus, helps to warm and moisten air.
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Pharynx :
What is it?
What does it connect?
What is it composed of?
What are the three regions?
- - Muscular tube from base of skull to C6.
- - Connects nasal cavity and mouth superiorly to larynx and esophagus.
- - Composed of skeletal muscle.
- - Nasopharynx, Oropharynx, Laryngopharynx
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Pharynx :
Where is the nasopharynx?
What happens in here during swallowing?
- - Air passageway posterior to nasal cavity
- - Soft palate and uvula close nasopharynx during swallowing.
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Pharynx :
What does the Oropharynx act as?
- - Passageway for food and air from level of soft palate to epiglottis.
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Pharynx :
What does the Laryngopharynx act as?
- - Passageway for food and air, extends to larynx, where continuous with esophagus.
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Larynx :
Where does it attach to and where does it open into and what is it continuous with?
What are its functions?
- - attaches to hyoid bone; opens into laryngopharynx; continuous with trachea.
- - Provides patent airway; routes air and food into proper channels; voice production (houses vocal folds.)
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Trachea :
What is it? Found?
The wall is composed of three layers. *inwards going outwards* Go into detail.
- Windpipe - from larynx into mediastinum.
- Three layers:
- - Mucosa : ciliated pseudo stratified epithelium with goblet cells.
- - Submucosa : connective tissue with seomucous glands.
- - Adventitia : outermost layer made of connective tissue.
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Trachea :
Say the two things it has.
What does the trachealis connect and when does it contract?
What's the carina and where is it?
- trachealis and carina
- - Connects posterior parts of cartilage rings; contracts during coughing to expel mucus.
- - Spar of cartilage on last, expanded tracheal cartilage; point where trachea branches into two main bronchi.
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Bronchial Tree :
something undergoes (#) orders of branching which also forms something?
- Air passages undergo 23 orders of branching - this forms the bronchial (respiratory) tree.
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Conducting Zone Structures :
Why is the trachea important here?
Each ____ enters ____ of one lung.
Where do each main bronchus branch into?
One lobe is supplied by...?
- - Trachea : divides to form right and left main (primary) bronchi.
- - main bronchus; hilum.
- - Each main bronchus branches into lobar (secondary) bronchi (three on right, two on left.)
- - Each lobar bronchus supplies one lobe.
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Conducting Zone Structures :
What do lobar bronchus branch into?
As Branches become smaller and smaller, they go in this order?
- - segmental (tertiary) bronchi, which divide repeatedly.
- - Bronchioles (less than 1 mm in diameter) and Terminal bronchioles (smallest; less than .5 diameter.)
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Respiratory Zone :
What does it begin as and what is the pathway?
What doe alveolar sacs contain and state 2 facts.
- - begins as terminal bronchioles -> respiratory bronchioles -> alveolar ducts -> alveolar sacs.
- - Alveolar sacs contain clusters of alveoli. 300 million alveoli make up most of lung volume and it's the site of gas exchange.
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Respiratory Membrane :
What does it consist of?
What are the alveolar walls comprised of?
Something secretes something...?
- - Alveolar and capillary walls and their fused basement membranes. (0.5 thick; gas exchange across membrane by simple diffusion.)
- - single layer of squamous epithelium (type I alveolar cells.)
- - Scattered cuboidal type II alveolar cells secrete surfactant and antimicrobial proteins.
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Alveoli :
What is it surrounded by?
What do alveolar pores do?
What do alveolar macrophages do?
- - surrounded by fine elastic fibers and pulmonary capillaries.
- - connect adjacent alveoli; equalize air pressure throughout lung.
- - Keeps alveolar surfaces sterile (2 million dead macrophages/ hour carried by cilia -> throat -> swallowed)
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Lungs :
What does it occupy?
What is the root?
What's the costal surface?
What is it composed of?
- - all thoracic cavity except mediastinum.
- - Site of vascular and bronchial attachment to mediastinum.
- - anterior, lateral and posterior surfaces.
- - primarily of alveoli.
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Lungs :
Know where the apex, base and hilum are found.
- - Apex : superior tip; deep to clavicle.
- - Base : inferior surface; rests on diaphragm.
- - Hilum : on mediastinal surface ; site for entry/exit of blood vessels, bronchi, lymphatic vessels and nerves.
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Lungs :
What's the main difference between the left and right lung?
What does the left lung have? and it's separated by...?
For the right lung, things are separated by something..?
- - left lung is smaller than right lung.
- - LL: cardiac notch (concavity for heart). Separated into superior and inferior lobes by oblique fissure.
- - RL : Superior, middle, inferior lobes separated by oblique and horizontal fissures.
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Lungs :
The lungs are separated by this segment? How many each? Separated by?
What's a plus due to this?
- - Bronchopulmonary segments. 10 right, 8-10 left.) Separated by connective tissue septa.
- - if diseased can be individually removed.
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Blood Supply :
Pulmonary circulation has low __ and high __?
What do the pulmonary arteries do?
Pulmonary veins?
- - pressure ; volume.
- - deliver systematic venous blood to lungs for oxygenation. (Branch profusely; feeds into pulmonary capillary networks.)
- - carries oxygenated blood from respiratory zones to heart.
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Blood Supply :
What do bronchial arteries provide?
Where does it arise from and enters what?
what is it apart of what and it has low __ and high __?
What does it do?
Something's linked to something?
- - oxygenated blood to lung tissue.
- - arise from aorta and enters lungs at hilum.
- - part of systematic circulation (high pressure and low volume.)
- - supplies all lung tissue except alveoli.
- - Bronchial veins anastomose with pulmonary veins.
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Pleura :
What is it? What does it divide?
Where is the parietal pleura found in?
What about visceral pleura?
What does the pleural fluid do?
- - thin, double-layered serosa; divides thoracic cavity into two pleural compartments and mediastinum.
- - on thoracic wall, superior face of diaphragm, around heart, between lungs.
- - on external lung surface.
- - fills slitlike pleural cavity and provides lubrication and surface tension -> assists in expansion and recoil
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Mechanics of breathing :
Something consists of two phases called...?
Go into detail.
- - Inspiration : gases flow into lungs.
- - Expiration : gases exit lungs.
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Pulmonary ventilation :
Has what?
What is it?
One thing causes something else to change.
What happens when pressure changes?
- - Inspiration and expiration.
- - mechanical process that depend on volume changes in thoracic cavity.
- - volume changes, pressure changes.
- - Pressure changes, gases flow to equalize pressure.
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Boyle's Law :
What is it?
State some compressible places.
At constance temperature, the pressure of a gas caries inversely with its volume.
- Middle ear space, sinuses, lungs, bowel lumen.
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Inspiration :
What type of process it is?
What contracts?
What happens to the thoracic and that causes what?
What happens to the lungs?
What happens to air?
- - active process.
- - inspiratory muscles (diaphragm and external intercostals) contract.
- - thoracic volume increases -> intrapulmonary pressure drops.
- - lungs stretched and intrapulmonary volume increases.
- - air flow into lungs, down its pressure gradient, until Ppul = Patm
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Expiration :
Type of process?
What relaxes?
What happens to the thoracic cavity?
Lungs?
Air flow?
What about forced expiration?
- - normally passive process.
- - inspiratory muscles.
- - Thoracic cavity volume decreases.
- - elastic lungs recoil and intrapulmonary volume decreases -> pressure increases.
- - Air flows out of the lungs down its pressure gradient until Ppul = 0.
- active process which uses abdominal (oblique and transverse) and internal intercostal muscles.
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Gas Exchange Between Blood, Lungs and tissues :
What's the difference between External respiration and Internal respiration?
What do they have in common?
- - External Respiration : diffusion of gases in lungs.
- - Internal Respiration : diffusion of gases at body tissues.
- - Both involve physical properties of gases and composition of alveolar gas.
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Basic Properties of Gases : Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures :
What it it?
Something related to this is directly proportional to what?
- - total pressure exerted by mixture of gases = sum of pressures extorted by each gas.
- - Pressure exerted by each gas in mixture; directly proportional to its percentage mixture.
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Basic Properties of Gases : Henry's Law :
What is it?
Something is proportion to something?
What happens at equilibrium?
Amount of gas dissolve depends on what?
- - Gas mixture in contact with liquid.
- - Each gas dissolved is proportion to its partial pressure.
- - At equilibrium, partial pressures in two phases will be equal.
- - Amount of each gas that will dissolve depends on solubility (CO2 is 20 times more soluble in water than O2; little N2 dissolves in water. ) and temperature (as liquid temperature rises, solubility decreases)
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Composition of Alveolar Gas :
What does alveoli contain more of?
Three things are related to this.?
- - more CO2 and water vapor than atmospheric air.
- - Gas exchanges in lungs; humidification of air; mixing of alveolar gas with each breath.
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External Respiration :
What is it?
What is it influenced by? (3)
- - Exchange of O2 and CO2 across respiratory membrane.
- - thickness and surface area of respiratory membrane; partial pressure gradients and gas solubilities; ventilation-perfusion coupling.
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[External Respiration] Thickness and Surface Area of Respiratory Membrane :
What's the size of respiratory membranes and it has a large what?
When does it thicken?
Where is the surface area reduced?
- - 0.5 - 1 mue m thick; large total surface area (40 times that of skin) for gas exchange.
- - thickens if lungs become waterlogged and edematous -> gas exchange inadequate.
- - Reduced surface area in emphysema (walls of adjacent alveoli break down), tumors, inflammation, mucus.
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[External Respiration] Partial Pressure Gradients and Gas Solubilities :
- - steep partial pressure gradient for O2 in lungs.
- - Venous blood Po2 = 40 mm Hg
- - Alveolar Po2 = 104 mm Hg.
- - Drives oxygen flow to blood
- - Equilibrium reached across respiratory membrane in ~0.25 seconds, about 1/3 time a red blood cell in pulmonary capillary -> (Adequate oxygenation even if blood flow increases 3X)
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[External Respiration] Partial Pressure Gradients and Gas Solubilities :
- - Partial pressure gradient for CO2 in lungs less steep.
- - venous Blood Pco2 = 45 mm Hg
- - Alveolar Pco2 = 40 mm Hg
- - Though gradient not as steep, CO2 diffuses in equal amounts with oxygen.
- - CO2 20 times more soluble in plasma than oxygen.
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[External Respiration] Ventilation - Perfusion Coupling :
What's Ventilation?
What's perfusion?
Why should they be matched?
Why are they never balanced?
- - Amount of gas reaching alveoli.
- - blood flow reaching alveoli.
- - matched (coupled) for efficient gas exchange.
- - due to regional variation due to effect of gravity on blood and air flow. Some alveolar ducts plugged with mucus.
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Internal Respiration :
What is it?
How is it different compared to external respiration? (3)
- - capillary gas exchange in body tissues.
- - Partial pressures and difusion gradients reversed compared to external respiration.
- - Tissue Po2 always lower than in systematic arterial blood -> oxygen from blood to tissues.
- - CO2 -> from tissues to blood.
- - Venous blood Po2 40 mm Hg and Pco2 45 mm Hg.
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Transport of Respiratory Gases by Blood :
Has two transports.
Oxygen (O2) transport and Carbon dioxide (CO2) transport.
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O2 transport :
What is it?
How much is dissolved in plasma?
How much is loosely bound to___?
Fully saturated vs partially saturated?
- - Molecular O2 carried in blood.
- - 1.5% dissolved in plasma.
- - 98.5% loosely bound to each Fe of hemoglobin
- - Fully saturated : all 4 heme groups carry O2.
- - Partially saturated : 1-3 hemes carry O2.
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CO2 Transport :
It is transported in blood in 3 forms:
Detail.
- - 7 to 10% dissolve in plasma.
- - 20% bound to globin of hemoglobin.
- - 70% transported as bicarbonate ions.
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Neural Signaling :
What are neurons?
How are neuron signals transmitted?
- - nerve cells that transfer information within the body
- - through neurons (and bundles of neurons - nerves)
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Neuron Signaling :
What are the two types of signals that neurons use to communicate?
- - Electrical signals : (long - distance)
- - Chemical signals : (short - distance)
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Divisions of the Nervous system :
What are the two divisions?
For the first one, where is it found in? What does it do?
For the second one, where is it found? What does it do?
- - Central Nervous System (CNS)
- - Brain and spinal cord.
- - Integration and control center : interprets sensory input and dictates motor output.
- - Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
- - portions of nervous system outside CNS.
- - Consists mainly of nerves that extend from brain and spinal cord.
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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) :
It has two functional divisions with certain "nicknames"
What do these divisions do?
- - Sensory (afferent) divison :
- Conveys impulses from skin, skeletal muscles, joints, and visceral organs to CNS.
- - Motor (efferent) division :
- Transmits impulses from CNS to effector organs (muscles and glands.)
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What's a synapse?
What's the synaptic terminal?
- - a junction between an axon and another cell.
- - synaptic terminal of one axon passes information across the synapse in the form of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters.
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Structural Classifications of Neurons :
How are they grouped by?
What are the three types and how many axons; dendrites and where it's found at?
- - number of processes.
- - Multipolar : 1 axon, other dendrites, most common in CNS.
- - Bipolar : 1 axon, 1 dendrite; rare - retina and olfactory mucosa.
- - Unipolar : 1 short process, T-like divide, both considered axons.
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Functional Classification of Neurons :
What are the three classification?
1st one : What does it do? Almost all are what? Where are their cell bodies located at?
2nd one : What does it do? Mostly what? cell bodies located where?
3rd one : Found where and does what? Where is it confined in?
- Sensory (afferent), Motor (efferent) and Interneurons.
- - Transmits impulses from sensory receptors toward CNS. Almost all are Unipolar. Cell bodies found in sensory ganglia outside CNS.
- -carry impulses from CNS to effectors. Multipolar. Most cell bodies in CNS (except some autonomic neurons.)
- - Lies between motor and sensory neurons in neural pathways and shuttle signals through CNS pathway where integration occurs. Mostly confined in CNS.
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Membrane Potentions :
Neurons are highly...?
What do they respond to and what do they do afterwards?
How does the impulse and stimulus relate?
- - excitable.
- - responds to adequate stimulus by generating an action potential (nerve impulse.)
- - Impulse is always the same regardless of stimulus.
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Define Voltage; how it is measured? What is it called? A greater what equals to what?
Define Current. What can it be used as?
Define Resistance and the two things that relate to it.
- measure of potential energy generated by separated charge. Measured by Volts (V) or Millivolts (mV). Called potential difference or potential. A greater charge difference between points = higher voltage.
- flow of electrical charge (ions) between two points. Can be used to do work.
- - hindrance to charge flow.
- Insulator (substance with high electrical resistance.)
- Conductor (substance with low electrical resistance.)
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Neural Signals :
Every cell has a what? and it moves across by what?
How are messages transmitted?
What's the resting potential?
- - has a voltage (difference in electrical charge) across its plasma membrane called membrane potential.
- - Messages are transmitted as changed in membrane potential.
- - the membrane potential of a neuron not sending signals.
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Ions :
Neurons have 3 types of ion channels...?
How do ions pass? Certain elements pass through differently...?
- Passive (leakage.. always open); Voltage-activated; chemically activated (ligand gated.)
- ions pass through specific passive ion channels in the membrane. K+ leaks out faster than Na+ leaks in.
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Gated Channels :
What happens when gated channels are open?
(From where to where?)
What does ion flow create?
- - Ions diffuse quickly across membrane along electrochemical gradients.
- (concentration gradients from higher conctrtn. to lower conctrtn.)
- (electrical gradients toward opposite electrical charge.)
- - created an electrical current and voltage changes across membrane.
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The resting Membrane Potential :
What is the potential difference across membrane of resting cell?
What is it generated by?
- - approximately - 70 mV in neurons (cytoplasmic side of membrane is negatively charged relative to outside)
- - Generated by difference in ionic makeup of ICF and ECF. Also, different permeability of the plasma membrane.
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Membrane potential :
Membrane go through Depolarization vs Hyperpolarization? What do these two cause?
- - Membrane is depolarized when a stimulus causes membrane potential to become less negative. Increases the probability of producing nerve impulses.
- - Membrane is hyper polarized when membrane potential becomes more negative than resting potential. reduces the probability of producing nerve impulses.
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Membrane Potential Changes used as communication signals :
When do membrane potential change?
These changes produce two types of signals called?
Why are these changes important?
- - When concentrations of ions across membrane change and membrane permeability to ions changes.
- - Graded potentials (incoming signals operating over short distances) and Action potentials (long-distance signals of axons.)
- -changes in membrane potential are used as signals to receive, integrate and send information.
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Membrane Potential Changes used as communication signals;
Graded Potentials :
What are they?
What varies?
A stronger what causes what?
Can either be what?
Triggered by what to open what?
Travels how far?
- - Short-lived, localized changes in membrane potential.
- -Magnitude varies with stimulus strength.
- - stronger stimulus -> more voltage change; farther current flows.
- - depolarization or hyper polarization.
- - triggered by stimulus that opens gated ion channels.
- - current flows but dissipated quickly and decays. Signals only over short distances.
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Membrane Potential Changes used as communication signals; Action Potential :
What type of channel responds to the change in membrane potential?
What happens when a stimulus depolarizes the membrane?
Movement of Na+ does what?
Strong stimulus does what?
- - voltage gated Na+ and K+ channels respond to a change in membrane potential.
- - When a stimulus depolarizes the membrane, Na+ channels open, allowing Na+ to diffuse into the cell.
- - The movement of Na+ into the cell increases the depolarization and causes even more Na+ channels to open.
- - strong stimulus results in a massive change in membrane voltage called an action potential.
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Action Potential :
When does it occur?
What is it?
- - occurs if a stimulus causes the membrane voltage to cross a particular threshold.
- - a brief all-or-none depolarization of a neuron's plasma membrane.
- - Action potential signals that carry information along axons.
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Action potential :
What's refractory period?
What happens when what?
- - a result of a temporary inactivation of the Na+ channels.
- - during the refractory period after an action potential, a secant action potential cannot be initiated.
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Propagation of an Action Potential :
What does propagation allow?
What causes local currents?
What do local currents then cause?
What do they trigger?
What happens then?
- - allows AP to serve as a signaling device.
- - Na+ influx causes local currents.
- - Local current then cause depolarization of adjacent membrane areas in direction away from AP origin (toward axon's terminals.)
- - This causes the AP to propagate AWAY from the AP origin.
- Since Na+ channels closer to AP origin are inactivated, no new AP is generated there.
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Propagation of an Action Potential :
Once initiated an AP is self-propagatin
In....
Differs...?
- - in nonmyelinated axons each successive segment of membrane depolarizes, then depolarizes.
- - Propagation in myelinated axons differs.
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Absolute Refractory Period :
- - When voltage gates Na+ channels open neuron cannot respond to another stimulus.
- - Absolute refractory period: time from opening of Na+ channels until resetting of the channels. Enforces one-way transmission of nerve impulses.
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