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Evolution
- Change in species over time
- A organism's adaptations to its environment
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Adaptation
Change within species to better adapt to environment(microevolution)
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Diversity
Splitting of species into new species(macroevolution)
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The Scale of Nature: person, date and description
- Aristotle
- 384-322 BC
- Fixed and perfect species designed by god
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Who organized diversity and when?
- Carolus Linnaeus
- 1707-1778
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Who proposed principle of gradualism and when?
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Who published "Essay on the Principle of Population" and when
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Who published their hypothesis on evolution and when?
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Who published extensive studies of vertebrate fossils and when?
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Who published Principles of Geology and when?
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When was Origin of Species published?
1859
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Developed palenontology, anatomy
extinctions
catastrophism
Georges Cuvier
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Given enough time changes will happen(via geological features)
James Hutton
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Uniformitarianism
earth must be older then bible suggests
Charles Lyell
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1st well developed theory or mechanism of evolution
Jean-Baptiste de Lamarch
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Who wrote "Theory of Evolution by the Inheritance of Acquired CHaracteristics" and when was it published?
- Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck
- 1809
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What are the two major influences on development of Darwin's ideas?
- 1. Domestication of plants and animals, artificial selection
- 2. Thomas Malthus, Essay on the Principle of Population
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General ideas of Principle of Population
- Struggle in nature to select the stronger traits
- nature produces more organisms than it can handle
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Who had the same ideas as Darwin?
Alfred Russel Wallace
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Two main ideas of The Origin of Species
- 1. All lie on Earth is related by common descent
- 2. Natural selection is the main cause of adaptive evolution
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What is the mechanism that causes changes over time?
Natural Selection
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Phenotype:
- Observable properties of an individual
- Environment selects phenotypes
- genotype + environmental influence = phenotype
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Genotype:
- Genetic make-up of individual
- DNA
- Random mutations
- *Only genotypes can be passed on*
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What does the mechanism of evolution have to have?
Both phenotype and genotype
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Three observations that helped Darwin:
- 1. Individuals in a population can vary greatly
- 2. traits are inherited from parents to offspring
- 3. Species produce more offspring than their environment can support. Many do not survive.
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2 Inferences that helped Darwin:
1. Individuals whose inherited traits give them a higher probability of surviving and reproducing in a given environment tend to leave more descendents that other individuals.
2. Unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce leads to accumulation of favorable traits in the population over generations.
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Three sources of genetic variability:
- Mutations
- recombination via sexual reproduction
- immigration of new genotypes
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2 ways natural selection operates via differential reproductive success
- 1. Mortality-survivorship
- 2. Reproductive ability(fecundity/fertility)
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Fitness
successful reproduction and contribution to successful future generations
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Three important points about evolution by natural selection:
- 1. populations evolve, individual organisms do not.
- 2. Natural selection only works on heritable traits
- 3. A trait favorable in one environment may be neutral or unfavorable in a different environment
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Biology
The scientific study of life
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Emergent properties
New properties that arise with each step upward in the hierarchy of life, owing to the arrangement and interactions of parts as complexity increases.
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10 levels of biological organization:
- 1. Biosphere
- 2. Ecosystems
- 3. COmmunities
- 4. Populations
- 5. Organisms
- 6. Organs and Organ Systems
- 7. Tissues
- 8. Cells
- 9. Organelles
- 10. Molecules
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Eukaryotic Cell:
- membrane-enclosed nucleus and organelles
- Protists, plants, fungi, and animals
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Prokaryotic Cell
- Cell lacking a membrane-enclosed nucleus and organelles
- Bacteria and Archaea
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Gene expression
Process by which information encoded in DNA directs the synthesis of proteins or, in some cases, RNAs that are not translated into proteins and instead function as RNA.
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Genome
Genetic material of an organism or virus; the complete complement of an organism's or virus's genes along with its noncoding nucleic acid sequences.
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Genomics
The study of whole sets of genes and their interactions within a species, as well as genome comparisons between species.
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Bioinformatics
The use of computers, software, and mathematical models to process and integrate biological information from large data sets.
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Negative feedback
A form of regulation in which accumulation of an end product of a process slows the process; in physiology, a primary mechanism of homeostasis, whereby a change in a variable triggers a response that counteracts the initial change.
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Positive feedback
A form of regulation in which an end product of a process speeds up that process; in physiology, a control mechanism in which a change in a variable triggers a response that reinforces or amplifies the change.
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Science
An approach to understanding the natural world
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Data
Recorded observations
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Inductive reasoning
A type of logic in which generalizations are based on a large number of specific observations.
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Hypothesis
A testable explanation for a set of observations based on available data and guided by inductive reasoning. A hypothesis is narrower in scope than a theory
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Deductive reasoning
A type of logic in which specific results are predicted from a general premise
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Controlled experiment
An experiment in which an experimental group is compared with a control group that varies only in the factor being tested
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Theory
An explanation that is broader in scope than a hypothesis, generates new hypotheses, and is supported by a large body of evidence.
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Uniformitarianism
The principle that mechanisms of change are constant over time.
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Catastrophism
The principle that events in the past occurred suddenly and were caused by different mechanisms than those operating today.
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Homology
Similarity in characteristics resulting from a share ancstery
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Homologous structures
Structures in different species that are similar because of common ancestry
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Vestigial structures
A feature of an organism that is a historical remnant of a structure that served a function in the organism's ancestors
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Convergent evolution
The evolution of similar features in independent evolutionary lineages
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Analogous
Having characteristics that are similar because of convergent evolution, not homology
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biogeography
The study of the past and present geographic distribution of species.
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Pangaea
The supercontinent that formed near the end of the Paleozoic era, when plate movements brought all the landmasses of Earth together
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endemic
Referring to a species that is confined to a specific geographic area.
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Microevolution
Evolutionary change below the species level; change in the allele frequencies in a population over generations.
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genetic variation
Differences among individuals in the composition of their genes or other DNA segments
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average heterozygosity
The percentage, on average, of a population's loci that are heterozygous in members of the population
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geographic variation
Differences between the gene pools of geographically separate populations or population subgroups
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cline
A graded change in a character along a geographic axis.
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Population
A group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area and interbreed, producing fertile offspring
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Gene pool
The aggregate of all copies of every type of allele at all loci in every individual in a population.
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Hardy-Weinberg principle
The principle that frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a population remain constant from generation to generation, provided that only Mendelian segregation and recombination of alleles are at work.
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Genetic drift
A process in which chance events cause unpredictable fluctuations in allele frequencies from one generation to the next. Effects of genetic drift are most pronounced in small populations
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Founder effect
Genetic drift that occurs when a few individuals become isolated from a larger population and form a new population whose gene pool composition is not reflective of that of the original population
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Bottleneck effect
Genetic drift that occurs when the size of a population is reduced, as by a natural disaster or human actions. Typically, the surviving population is no longer genetically representative of the original population.
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Gene flow
The transfer of alleles from one population to another, resulting from the movement of fertile individuals or their gametes.
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Relative fitness
The contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation, relative to the contributions of other individuals in the population.
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Directional Selection
Natural selection in which individuals at one end of the phenotypic range survive or reproduce more successfully than do other individuals
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Stabilizing Selection
Natural selection in which intermediate phenotypes survive or reproduce more successfully than do extreme phenotypes
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Disruptive Selection
Natural selection in which individuals on both extremes of a phenotypic range survive or reproduce more successfully than do individuals with intermediate phenotypes.
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Sexual Selection
A form of selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates
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Sexual Dimorphism
Differences between the secondary sex characteristics of males and females
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Intrasexual Selection
Selection in which there is direct competition among individuals of one sex for mates of the opposite sex.
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Intersexual Selection
Selection whereby individuals of one sex (usually females) are choosy in selecting their mates from individuals of the other sex; also called mate choice
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Neutral Variation
Genetic variation that does not provide a selective advantage or disadvantage
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Balancing Selection
Natural selection that maintains two or more phenotypic forms in a population
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Heterozygote Advantage
Greater reproductive success of heterozygous individuals compared with homozygotes; tends to preserve variation in a gene pool
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Frequency-dependent Selection
Selection in which the fitness of a phenotype depends on how common the phenotype is in a population
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Mutations
A change in the nucleotide sequence of an organism's DNA or in the DNA or RNA of a virus
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Point Mutations
A change in a single nucleotide pair of a gene
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Nucleotide-pair substitution
A type of point mutation in which one nucleotide in a DNA strand and its partner in the complementary stand are replaces by another pair of nucleotides
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Silent Mutation
A nucleotide-pair substitution that has no observable effect on the phenotype; for example, within a gene, a mutation that results in a codon that codes for the same amino acid.
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Missense Mutations
A nucleotide-pair substitution that results in a codon that codes for a different amino acid
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Nonsense Mutation
A mutation that changes an amino acid codon to one of the three stop codons, resulting in a shorter and usually nonfunctional protein
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Insertions
A mutation involving the addition of one or more nucleotides pairs to a gene
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Deletions
- A deficiency in a chromosome resulting from the loss of a fragment through breakage
- A mutational loss of one or more nucleotide pairs from a gene
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Frameshift Mutation
A mutation occurring when nucleotides are inserted in or deleted from a gene and the number inserted or deleted is not a multiple of three, resulting in the improper grouping of the subsequent nucleotides into codons.
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Mutagens
A chemical or physical agent that interacts with DNA and can cause a mutation
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