-
What is Memory?
is any indication that learning has persisted over time. It is our ability to store and retrieve information.
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Flashbulb memories
clear memory of a significant moment or event But this is not free from error
-
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In computers, this Memory process is sequential this is differnt from humans because
brain can do many things at once—in parallel.
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Atkinson & Shriffrin’s
Three-Stage
Processing Model
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Alan Baddeley (2002) proposes that ____ memory contains auditory and visual processing controlled
by the central executive through an episodic buffer.
working memory
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Effortful learning usually requires
rehearsal or conscious repetition.
-
Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using _____ ____
TUV YOF GEK XOZ
nonsense syllables:
-
The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on
Day 1, the fewer repetitions were required to remember them on Day 2. this is an example of...
overlearning
-
Next-in-line-Effect
- When you are so anxious about being next that you cannot
- remember what the person just before you in line says, but you can recall what
- other people around you say.
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Spacing
Effect
- We retain information better when we break up
- rehearsal over time
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Serial
Position Effect
- When your recall is better for first and last items on a
- list, but poor for middle items.
-
How do we encode, what do we encode
- 3.Encoding
- by organization
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Mental pictures (imagery)
are a powerful aid to
effortful processing,
especially when combined
with___ ____
semantic encoding.
-
Talk about the effectiveness of Visual encoding
- Mental pictures (imagery)
- are a powerful aid to
- effortful processing,
- especially when combined
- with semantic encoding.
- Concrete words (typewriter, chair) are easier
- to remember than abstract words (process, inherent), because they more easily
- create a mental image.
-
Imagery is at the
heart of many memory aids. _____ techniques use vivid imagery in aiding
memory
two theories are...
.
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Chunking
Organizing items into a familiar, manageable unit.
-
______ are another way of chunking information to remember it.
Acronyms
-
Hierarchy
- Complex information broken down into broad concepts and
- further subdivided into categories and subcategories
-
describe Encoding Summarized in a Hierarchy
-
Types of Storage are
- Sensory memory
- Iconic memory
- Echoic memory
- Working/short-term memory
- Long-term memory
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Iconic Memory
Consists of brief visual images, the visual sensory memory consisting of a perfect photograpic memory, which lasts no mrore than a few thenths of a second
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Echoic Memory
the momentary sensory memory of auditory stimull, lasting about 3 or 4 seconds
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Working Memory
the newer way of conceptualizing short-term memory as a work site for the active processing of incoming auditory and visual spatial information, and the infoormation retreived from long-term memory
The capacity of the working memory may be increased by “Chunking”:
-
short-term memory
conscious memory, which can hold about seven items for a short time
-
Long-term memory
the relatively permanent and unlimited capacity memory system into which information from short term memory may pass
-
More about Long term memory
- We have an unlimited capacity for
- long-term memory storage. Estimates on capacity range
- from 1000 billion to 1,000,000 billion bits of information.
- But we do not store information with the
- exactness of a tape recorder—forgetting occurs as new experiences interfere
- with our retrieval as the physical memory trace decays.
- Memories are not stored in a specific part of
- the brain (Lashley, 1950)
-
Long-Term
Potentiation (LTP)
- refers to synaptic enhancement after learning.
- An increase in neurotransmitter release or receptors on
- the receiving neuron indicates strengthening of synapses.
-
Explain the effects of Stress Hormones on Memory
- Heightened emotions
- (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories.
- More glucose
- available to fuel the brain.
- Activity in the amygdala can sear events into
- the brain.
- dramatic experiences are more likely to be
- rehearsed
- But, prolonged,
- continued stress may
- disrupt memory.
-
Explicit Memory
- refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously
- know and declare.
-
Implicit memory or procedural memory
- involves learning an action
- while the individual does not consciously recollect learning.
-
Break down long term memory
-
Hippocampus
a neural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories
-
Cerebellum
a neural center in the hindbrain that processes implicit memories.
-
After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry M. (HM)
remembered everything before the operation but cannot make new memories. We
call this _____ ______
HM is unable to make new memories that are declarative (explicit), but he can form new memories that are procedural (implicit).
anterograde amnesia.
-
(inability to remember events before brain damage) can occur when the damage
interferes with the processing of memory for long-term storage.
Retrograde amnesia
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In ______, the person must identify an item amongst other choices. (A multiple-choice test
requires recognition.)
recognition
-
In ____, the person must retrieve information using effort. (A fill-in-the blank test
requires recall.)
recall
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In _____, the individual shows how much time (or effort) is saved when learning material for
the second time.
relearning
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Retrieval cues
anchor points you can use to access the target information.
-
To retrieve a specific memory from the web of
associations, you must first activate one of the strands that leads to it. This
process is called _____
priming
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State-dependent memory
what we learn in one state is more recognizable in a similar state
-
Mood-congruent memory
- people tend to recall
- experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood (good or bad).
- For example, being
- depressed primes negative associations.
-
explain Déja Vu
- If we have previously been in a similar situation, the
- current situation may be loaded with cues that unconsciously retrieve the
- earlier experience
-
Forgetting
an inability to retrieve information due to:
-
Storage Decay
- Poor durability of
- stored memories leads to their decay. Ebbinghaus showed this with his
- forgetting curve.
- Forgetting is
- initially rapid, then levels off.
-
example of Storage Decay
Bahrick (1984) showed a similar pattern of forgetting and retaining Spanish over 50 years.
-
Retrieval Failure
- Although the information is retained in the memory
- store, it cannot be accessed
- Tip-of-the-tongue
- (TOT) is a retrieval failure phenomenon.
- What
- makes blood cells red?
- Given a cue (the word
- begins with an H), we may retrieve the
- memory (hemoglobin).
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