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Anatomy
the study of the structure (morphology, form) of body parts
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Physiology
the study of the function of body parts
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Anatomy dictates_____.
function
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Function follows____!
form
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The ______-____ relationship holds at every level; although some changes in form affect function, others do not.
structure function
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Homeostasis
the tendency of organisms to regulate and maintain relative internal stability
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Blaude Bernard (1872)
- the milieu interieur
- "constancy of the internal environment is the condition of life"
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Walter B. Cannon (1871-1945)
sympathetic "flight or fight" response "Homeostasis"
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Structures are linked to______.
functions.
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atom
- Carbon
- Hydrogen
- Oxygen
- smallest partivle of an element
- react together to form molecules
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molecule
- carbon dioxide
- water
- a particle composed of 2 or more joined atoms
- combine with others to form macromolecules
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macromolecules
- carbohydrates
- lipids
- proteins
- nucleic acids
- a large molecule
- combine with others to form organelles
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organelles
- cell membrane
- nucleus
- ribosomes
- a small organ of a cell which performs a particular function
- collectively compose cells
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cells
basic unit of structure and function of living organisms!
each cell has a set of organelles and performs a particular function
(ie a red blood cell has a biconcave shape and is a nucleate)
this structure increases its surface area, allowing for the transport of more oxygen
similar ones are arranged into tissues
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tissues
- epithelia
- connective
- muscle
- nervous
group of similar cells that performs a specialized function
two or more combine to form organs
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organs
structure consisting of a group of tissues that performs a specialized function two or more combine to form organ systems
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organ systems
- integuentary
- cardiovascular
a group of organs that act together to carry on a specialized function
there are 11 of these and they form the human organism
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human organism
the most complex level of organization and is defined as an individual living thing
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The levels of hierarchy could be further extended to include;
- populations
- communities
- ecosystems
- biosphere
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Body Systems
Groups of organs that perform related functions and interact to accomplish a common activity essential to survival of the whole body
Do not act in isolation from one another
Human body has 11 systems
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Digestive system
- mouth
- pharynx
- esophagus
- stomach
- small intestine
- large intestine
- salivary glands
- exocrine pancreas
- liver
- gallbladder
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Respiratory system
- nose
- pharynx
- larynx
- trachea
- bronchi
- lungs
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Urinary system
- kidneys
- ureterss
- urinary bladder
- urethra
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Muscular system
skeletal muscles
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Immune system
- lymph nodes
- thymus
- bone marrow
- tonsils
- adenoids
- spleen
- appendix
- white blood cells
- gut-associated lymphoid tissue
- skin-associated lymphoid tissue
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Nervous system
- brain
- spinal cord
- peripheral nerves
- special sense organs
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Endocrine system
- All hormone secreting tissues
- hypothalamus
- pituitary
- thryroid
- adrenals
- endocrine pancreas
- gonads
- kidneys
- pineal
- thymus
- parathyroids
- intestine
- heart
- skin
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Reproductive system
- Male: testes
- penis
- prostate fland
- seminal vesicles
- bulbourethral glands
- associated ducts
- Female: ovaries
- oviducts
- uterus
- vagina
- breasts
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circulatory system fucntion
transport of blood throughout the body's tissues
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Respiratory system function
- exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen
- regulation of hydrogen ion concentration
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digestive system function
digestion and absorption of organic nutrients, salts, and water
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Urinaty sustem function
Regulation of plasma composition through controlled excretion of salts water and organic wastess
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Musculoskeletal
- support protection and movement of the body
- production of blood cells
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Immune system function
- defense against foreign invaders
- return of extracellular fluid to blood
- formation of white blood cells
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Nervous system function
- Regulation and coordination of many activities in the body
- detection of changes in the internal and external environments
- states of consciousness
- learning
- cognition
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Endocrine
Regulation and coordination of many activities in the body including growth metabolism reproduction blood pressure electrolyte balance and others
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Reproductive
- Production of sperm
- transfer of sperm to female
- production of effs
- provision of eggs
- provision of a nutritive environment for the developing embryo and fetus
- nutrition of the infant
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Integumentary
- protection against injury and dehydration
- defense against foreign invaders
- regulation of temperature
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Basic Cell Functions
- -obtain nutrients and oxygen from surrounding environment
- - perform chemical reactions that provide energy for the cell
- -eliminate carbon dioxide and other wastes to surrounding environment
- -synthesize needed cellular components
- - reproduction
- -exception: nerve cells and muscle cells lose their ability to reproduce during their early development
- -Sensing and responding to changes in surrounding environment
- -control exchange of materials between cell and its surroumding environment
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Homeostasis does not mean
that composition temperature and other characteristics are absolutely unchanging
essential for survival and funtion of all cells
each cells contributes to maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment
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Body cells are in contained in ______ _____ _______ through which life sustaining exchanges are made
watery internal environment
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Extracellular fluid(ECF)
fluid environment in which the cells live (fluid outisde the cells)
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Two components of extracellular fluid
plasma
interstitial fluid
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Intracellular fluid
fluid contained within all body cells
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ICF--->ISF---->plasma---->organs----->external environment
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liters of interstitial fluid
11L
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liters of Intracellular fluid
28L
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_____&_____ are key concept for understanding physiological homeostasis
exchange and communication
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Homeostasis involves dynamic mechanisms that detect and respond to deviation in physiological variables from their "____ ______" values by initiating effector responses that restore the cariables to the optimal physiological range.
set point
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Two systems that maintain homeostasis are
Nervous system
Endocrine system
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Nervous system
- controls and coordinates bodily activities that require rapid responses
- detects and initiates reaction to changes in external environment
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Endocrine system
secreting glands of endocrine regulate activities that require duration rather than speed
controls concentration of nutrients and by adjusting kidney function controls internal environment's volume and electrolyte composition
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Concentration of O2 in Homeostasis
100mmHg
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Concentration of CO2 in Homeostasis
40mmHg
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Blood volume in homeostasis
4-6L
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pressure in homeostasis
120/80
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Homeostasis is continually being disrupted ny
- External stimuli
- Internal stimuli
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External stimuli
- heat
- cold
- lack of oxygen
- pathogens
- toxins
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Internal Stimuli
- body temperature
- blood pressure
- concentration of water glucose salts oxygen etc.
- physical and psychological distresses
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If homeostasis is not maintained what can result
death
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the disruptions in homeostasis can be
mild to severe
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Feedforward
terms used for responses made in anticipation of a change
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Feedback
responses made after change has been detected
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Types of feedback systems
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Negative feedback loop
- original stimulus reversed
- most feedback systems in the body are ____
- used for conditions that need frequent adjustment
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Positive feedback loop
- original stimulus intensified
- seen during normal child birth
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Receptor
structures that monitor a controlled condition and detect changes in a feedback loop
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control center
determines next action in the feedback loop
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Effector
- receives directions from the control center
- produces a response that restores the controlled conditions in the feedback loop
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Effectors
"effect" cause responses
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Afferent pathways
"affect" (influence) decisions about what happens next
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Integrating center--->
- effector
- response
- efferent pathway
- negative feedback
- stimulus
- receptor
- afferent pathway
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Negative feedback system
- prevents sudden severe changes in body
- corrects the set point
- causes opposite of bodily disruption to occur
- limits chaos in the body by creating stability
- most common type of feedback loop
- examples body temperature, blood pressure and glucose regulation
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Positive feedback system
- increases (accelerates) the actions of the body
- produces more instability in the body
- produces more chaos in the body
- only a few types necessary for survival
- short lived
- controls only infrequent events that do not require continuous adjustments
- the uncommon loop
- examples: blood clotting and child birth
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Positive feedback during childbirth
- stretch receptors in walls of uterus send signals to the brain
- brain induces release of hormone oxytocin into bloodstream
- uterine smooth muscle contracts more forcefully
- more stretch more hormone more contraction
- cycle ends with birth of the baby and decrease in stretch
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homeostasis requires
energy
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When in balance homeostasis input = output results in a dynamic steady state which is
not equilibrium
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Equilibrium is
a stagnent state in which there is no potential energy remaining so only passive processes can occur
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Equilibrium does not need
energy
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Active product controls the sequence of chemical reactions by
inhibiting the sequence's rate-limiting enzyme, Enzyme A
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endocrine
signals reach often-distant targets after transport in blood
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paracrine
signals reach neighboring cells via the ISF
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autocrine
signals affect the cell that synthesized them
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