Last Test A&P1!!!

• Oxygen, and nutrients to tissues
• Carbon dioxide, and other waste products from tissues
• Hormones, and immune cells throughout the body

• pH
• Fluid volumes
• Body temperature

• Against blood loss via clotting
• Against infection via production of some immune cells

• Albumins
• Globulins
• Fibrinogen

most abundant and important for plasma osmotic pressure

important in transport of lipids / fat soluable vitamins, and immune system immunoglobulins = antibodies

blood clotting

Oxygen-carrying protein in RBCs

Erythropoiesis

red bone marrow production of more RBCs

• Globin  (protein)
• Heme
• Iron
• Non-iron part of heme degraded to biliverdin (green pigment)      
• bilirubin (
• a yellow pigment), which the liver releases in bile

• *Formed in red bone marrow
• *Remove wastes, toxins, and damaged /abnormal / invading cells
• *Some are capable of phagocytosis
• *Found in blood as well as in tissues
• *Fight infection  / important part of the immune system
• *Some live days and others live months or years
• *Several types

• Neutrophil
• Eosinophil
• Basophil

• Lymphocyte
• *B lymphs
• *T lymphs  
• Monocyte

• Most abundant WBCs, 50-75%
• engulf bacteria by phagocytosis> a major function in curbing infection

• Small percentage (2-4%) of WBC’s
• Parasitic infections and allergic reactions

• Least common of all WBC’s (<1%)
• Release histamine during allergic reactions
• Attracts other WBCs
• When it migrates into connective
• tissues >transforms into a mast cell

• Relatively uncommon WBC’s (3-8%)
• Migrates to connective tissues, transforms into phagocytic cells (macrophages, osteoclasts, etc.)

• 25-35% of all WBC’s
• Develop into B and T cells (lymphocytes) cornerstone of our specific immune system
• Most lymphocytes continually move
• among lymphoid tissues, lymph, and blood, spending only a few hours at a time in blood

• Important component of the antibody mediated immune system
• Give rise to plasma cells > antibodies

• Specialized white blood cells
• Kill cells not recognized as coming from the body, and cancerous cells

• Formed in the red bone marrow from 2000-3000 fragments of a cell called a megakaryocyte
• Function in blood clotting

• I. Vascular spasm
• II. Formation of platelet plug
• III. Blood coagulation and fibrous organization
• IV. Clot dissolution - plasmin

• Clotting factors are released from injured tissue/ platelets
• These clotting factors convert prothrombin thrombin
• Thrombin causes fibrinogen (plasma protein produced by the liver) to form long strands of fibrin
• Fibrin strands form a web that traps blood cells and forms a clot

Vitamin K

• allows us to dissolve clots when they are inappropriate or no longer needed:   
• Plasminogen > Plasmin> dissolves fibrin threads

• Occurs when antibodies contact a foreign cell
• This response is used to determine blood type

A-A complexes activate the complement system which makes cell develop holes and burst

sends oxygenated blood to the body via the aorta and is powered by the left side of the heart.

sends unoxygenated blood to the lungs via pulmonary trunk and is powered by the right side of the heart.

• Pulmonary trunk
• Arch of the Aorta 
• Coronary arteries

• Superior vena cava
• Inferior vena cava
• 4 Pulmonary veins
• The Coronary Sinus

• Sino-atrial (SA) node artery
• Atrio-ventricular (AV) node artery
• Posterior interventricular artery

• Anterior interventricular artery (Left anterior descending artery – LAD)
• Circumflex coronary artery

coronary sinus on the back part of the heart then empty into the right atrium

Special cardiac muscle cells conduct action potential into the myocardium

CO is the volume of blood ejected from the ventricles each minute

• CO = SV x HR
• CO = SV (stroke volume) X HR (heart rate-beats/min)
• Normal CO = 70mL X 75 beats/min. = 5250 mL/min.
• = 5.25 L/min.

simple squamous epithelium

• Smooth muscle*
• Elastic lamina (most prevalent in larger arteries)

• Smallest arteries
• Prime controllers of blood pressure
• Gatekeepers of capillary networks- open / closed

Smooth muscle contracts > diameter lumen narrows >decreases blood flow

Smooth muscle relaxes > diameter lumen increases > increases blood flow

• Microscopic-connect arterioles to venules
• Walls one cell thick
• Site of exchange between blood and cells

• Network of capillaries servicing a particular area
• enormous surface area for exchange
• Makes blood flow very slowly, allowing more time for exchange of gases and other materials

• Contraction of skeletal muscles
• Pressure differences of breathing
• Vein valves

4

• •The vascular system
• •The nervous system
• •The endocrine hormones and organs like
• the adrenal gland / kidney
• •The heart

• Increases heart rate, BP, cardiac contractility
• Dilates pupils
• Dilates lung airways
• Relaxes bowel muscles, but tightens sphincters
• Causes “ goose bumps”

• Decreases HR, BP, Contractility
• Constricts pupils
• Constricts lung airways             
• Increases gut motility, relaxes sphincters

failure to deliver adequate O2 and nutrients to tissues, usually due to poor blood flow

due to decreased blood volume

due to weakened heart function

due to inappropriate vasodilation (anaphylactic)

due to obstruction of blood flow

hardening of the arteries

• Primary – Chronic- Single specific cause usually can not be identified
• Secondary – due to arterial or kidney disease, or hormonal imbalances

• Ballooning of a vessel
• Atherosclerosis and hypertension > weaken a vessel >causes ballooning > rupture

• Nasal cavity
• Pharynx
• Larynx
• Trachea
• Primary (1o) bronchi
• Secondary (2o) bronchi
• Tertiary (3o) bronchi
• Bronchioles
• Alveoli (150 million/lung)

Thyroid cartilage (“Adam’s Apple”) + Vocal Cords + Cricoid cartilage 2 mucosal folds = vocal cords; opening between them = the glottis

• Tube that connects the larynx with the 1° bronchi
• Located just anterior to the esophagus in the mediastinum
• Cartilaginous rings( C-shaped)- insure airway
• stays open
• Lining = epithelium with cilia +mucus secreting goblet cells  ---- keep lungs clean

• Two primary bronchi lead from trachea to the lungs
• Bronchi continue to branch smaller until > bronchioles
• All bronchi above bronchioles contain cartilage in walls

~1mm diameter and contain smooth muscle

regulates passage of air into the alveoli

each alveolus is covered by a capillary bed

Autonomic Nervous System

airway dilation,

airway constriction

• •sac-like at end of respiratory passages
• •enveloped by capillaries
• •Lined with simple squamous epithelium - easy exchange of gases
• •lined with surfactant- a phospholipid acts as a film to coat alveoli and keep them open

• LINING OF AN ALVEOLUS:
• Type-I alveolar cell- Allows exchange of O2 /CO2 between air and blood                   
• Most numerous type
• Type-II
• alveolar cell- makes surfactant. Deficiency in pre-mature infants > “respiratory distress syndrome of new-born”=RDS
• •Dust cell (Alveolar Macrophage)- gather and digest debris/ bacteria (remember that all macrophages are the garbage men of WBC’s)

• Volume and pressure are inversely related
• V ∝ 1/P

–into lungs when pressure in atmosphere pressure in lungs

–out of lungs when pressure in lungs pressure in atmosphere

changes in volume of the thoracic cavity

contraction or relaxation of muscles of the thorax

muscle of ventilation

• •diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract
• •diaphragm flattens / rib cage moves up and out
• •volume of thorax increases
• •air pressure around/ in lung decreases
• Atmospheric pressure forces air into lungs

The pressure of each gas in a mixture of gases is directly proportional to the percentage of that gas in the total mixture:  PTotal = P1 + P2 + P3 …

• Increasing the partial pressure of a gas in contact with a solution will result in more of the gas dissolving into the solution.  
• E.g. O2 and blood

• 1) 7% is dissolved in the plasma, as a gas.
• 2) 70% is converted to carbonic acid (action of enzyme carbonic anhydrase) then dissociates into a bicarbonate ion + H+
• CO2 + H2O⇿ H2CO3  ⇿H+ + HCO3-3) 23%  is attached to Hgb (not at same binding sites as oxygen).

• Most important chemical influencing breathing rate Chemoreceptors in medulla, aortic bodies, carotid bodies Increased carbon dioxide
• > increased breathing rate