Endocrine system

• Source: Hypothalamus
• Target: Anterior pituitary gland
• Effects: Decrease release of prolactin

• uterine contraction
• Nursing
• Sexual arousal

• Source: Posterior pituitary
• Targets: Uterus & mammary gland
• Effects: 1. Increase uterine contractions (during child birth) 2. Milk ejection (during lactation)

• Increase solutes in the blood
• decrease blood volume
• decrease blood pressure

• Source: Posterior pituitary
• Targets: Kidneys & thirst centers in the brain
• Effects: 1.Decrease urination output 2. increase thirst 3. Increase blood volume 4. increase blood pressure

• Source: Hypothalamus
• Target: Anterior pituitary gland
• Effects: Decrease release of growth hormone (hGH)

• Source: Hypothalamus
• Target: Anterior pituitary gland
• Effects: increase release of growth hormone (hGH)

• Source: Hypothalamus
• Target: Anterior pituitary gland
• Effects: Increase release of Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

• Source: Hypothalamus
• Target: Anterior pituitary gland
• Effects: Increase release of Andrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

• Source: Hypothalamus
• Target: Anterior pituitary gland
• Effects: Increase release of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) & luteinizing Hormone (LH)

• Source: Anterior pituitary
• Target: All tissues
• Effect: 1. increase growth of tissue 2. Increase amino acid uptake & synthesis of protein 3. Increase glycogen synthesis 4. Decrease blood glucose

• Source: Anterior pituitary
• Target: Thyroid
• Effect: Increase production of thyroid hormones (T3 & T4)

• Source: Anterior pituitary
• Target: Mammary glands
• Effect: 1. Production of milk 2. Increase sensitivity to LH & FSH

• Source: Anterior pituitary
• Target: Ovarian Follicle
• Effect: 1. Maturation of follicle 2. production of estrogen

• Source: Anterior pituitary
• Target: Nurse cells (in testis)
• Effect: Production & maturation of sperm cells

• Source: Anterior pituitary
• Target: Ovarian Follicle cells
• Effect: 1. Ovulation 2. production of progesterone

• Source: Anterior pituitary
• Target: Interstitial cells (in testis)
• Effect: 1. production of testosterone 2. support sperm cells

• Source: Anterior pituitary.
• Target: Adrenal cortex (zona fasciculata)
• Effect: increase release of glucocorticoids (Cortisol, cortisone, and corticosterone)

• Source: Anterior pituitary
• Target: Brain
• Effect: 1. Reduce awareness of pain 2. Effects mood  3. decrease secretion of GnRH

• Source: Anterior pituitary
• Target: Adipose tissue
• Effect: Lipolysis (fat breakdown)

• Source: Anterior pituitary
• Target: Melanocytes
• Effect: Increase production of melanin (mostly in infants)

• MSH
• Lipotropin
• β Endorphin
• ACTH

• Source: Parafollicular cells (in thyroid gland)
• Target: kidneys & bones
• Effects: 1. Increase C_a²⁺ secretion of kidneys 2. Decrease osteoclast activity 3. Increase osteoblast activity

• Source: Thyroid gland
• Target: All cells / tissue
• Effects: 1. Increase of O₂ consumption 2. Increase energy consumption 3. Increase heart rate & force of contraction  4. Increase growth of skin, nails, and hair 5. Increase sensitivity to sympathetic stimulation 6. Increase metabolic rate  7. Increase body temperature

• Irregular secretion of one or all the following hormones:
• TRH (hypothalamus), TSH (anterior pituitary), or T₃ & T₄ (thyroid gland)

• Too little production of T₄ & T₃
• Over production of T₄ & T₃

High blood C_a²⁺

Low blood Ca^₂₊

• Source: Para thyroid glands
• Target: kidneys, bones, and intestine
• Effects: 1. Increase C_a²⁺ re-absorption in the kidneys 2. Increase osteoclast activity 3. Decrease osteoblast activity 4. Increase absorption of C_a²⁺ via the GI tract

• Source: Adrenal medulla
• Target: All sells & tissues
• Effects: 1. Sympathetic activity  2. Increase glycogen breakdown  3. Increase blood glucose

Androgen

• Source: Zona reticularis (adrenal cortex)
• Target: Bones & muscles (in woman and children)
• Effects: 1. Bone growth  2. Muscle mass

• Cortisol
• Because people under stress secrete large amount of cortisol.
• During long period of stress, a person can get sick easily because cortisol inhibit immune response.

Effect glucose level

• Source: Zona fasciculata (adrenal cortex)
• Target: All cells & tissues
• Effects: 1. increase protein breakdown  2. increase gluconeogenesis 3. increase lipolysis  4. decrease inflammation  5. inhibit immune response

• Help maintain salt balance.
• Aldosterone
• Zona glomerulosa

• Source: Zona glomerulosa (adrenal cortex)
• Target: 1. Kidneys 2. Salt receptors
• Effects: 1. Increase re-absorption of N_a⁺ (bye the kidneys) 2. Increase secrete K⁺ (by the kidneys) 3. Increase salt consumption

• Cause: Target cannot response properly to insulin
• Usually associate with obesity.
• Treatment: diet, exercise, and medications

• Cause: Inadequate production of insulin
• Effects: Glucose cannot be removed from blood. As result, glucose in the filtrate will pull H₂O by osmosis that will cause loss of a lot of water in urine.
• Treatment: must receive exogenous insulin

• Source: Ovarian follicle
• Target: Anterior pituitary
• Effects: Inhibit FSH release

• Source: Corpus luteum
• Target: Most cells
• Effects: 1. Prepare uterus for implantation  2. Develop and maintain secondary sexual characteristics

• Source: Ovarian follicle
• Target: Most cells
• Effects: 1. Develop & maturation of female genitalia 2. Develop and maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics  3. Regulation of menstrual cycle

• Source: Nurse cells (in testis)
• Target: Anterior pituitary 
• Effects: Inhibit FSH release

• Source: Interstitial cells (in testis)
• Target: Most cells
• Effects: 1. Increase sperm production  2. Develop & maintain secondary sexual characteristics (Male genitalia)

• Source: Pineal gland
• Target: Brain
• Effects: 1. Effect mood  2. Regulate circadian pattern  3. Effect reproduction (in animals)

Cause: ADH production deficiency

Effect: production of huge amount of very dilute urine

Note: does not related to blood glucose!

• Source: Alpha cell (pancreatic islet)
• Target: Mainly the liver (also muscle & adipose)
• Effects: 1. glycogen breakdown  2. increase gluconeogenesis 3. increase blood glucose

• Source: Beta cells
• Target: All cells (specially the liver, adipose, & muscle)
• Effects: 1. increase glucose uptake by the cells  2. increase glucose use (by cells)  3. Up-regulation of glucose carriers  4. increase glycogen synthesis 5. increase adipose production  6. decrease blood glucose

• Source: F cells (pancreatic islet)
• Target: Pancreas (pancreatic acini) & gallbladder
• Effects: 1. Reduce pancreas secretion  2. reduce gallbladder secretion (bile)

• Source: Delta cells (pancreatic islet)
• Target: alpha & beta cells
• Effects: inhibit production of insulin & glucagon

Hormone blood level is increase or decrease on regular intervals

Neurohypophysis

Andenohypophysis

• Regulatory hormones released via the hypophyseal system (part of the infundibulum) to the anterior pituitary
• Neurons release neurohormons directly to the posterior pituitary

• 1. Has neurons that release 2 hormones via the posterior pituitary (ADH & oxytocin)
• 2. Has sympathetic neurons that control the adrenal medulla
• 3. Release regulatory hormones to anterior pituitary

Two hormones have an opposing effects

Two hormones have different but complementary effect

1^st hormone is required for 2^nd hormone to have an effect

Effect of combination of two hormones is grater then each one of them by itself

• Up-regulation increases the number of hormone receptors.
• Down-regulation decrease the number of hormone receptors.

Hormone blood level is increase or decrease in response to stimulus

Hormone blood level is stable all the time

H₂O soluble hormones will bind to Plasma membrane receptors (in the cell membrane). 

• Lipid soluble hormones will bind to Cytoplasm receptors (in the cytoplasm of the cell)

They released to the environment and act on  another member of the same species

Blood stream

• Neurohormone; a chemical signal that secreted into the blood stream and travel do a different area in the body
• Neurotransmitter; a chemical signal that released into synaptic cleft and into a second neuron

• Released into the interstitial fluid (stay in the area that it released into)
• Will bind to different cells of those it was released from

• Release into interstitial fluid (stay in the area it released into)
• Will bind to same type of cells as the cells it had released from.

Thymus, heart, gonads (testis & ovaries), kidneys, and digestive tract.

Hypothalamus, pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, pancreatic islets, adrenal glands

1. Increase metabolic rate 2. Increase body temperature 3. Increase appetite 4. loss of weight 5. Increase cutaneous glands secretion  6. Soft/smooth skin & hair  7. Diarrhea 8. Hyperactivity & insomnia 9. Warm flushed skin

1. Decrease metabolic rate  2. decrease appetite 3. gain weight 4. decrease in body temperature 5. decrease secretion of cutaneous glands 6. Dry skin and hair 7. brittle nails  8. constipation 9. apathy & drowsiness 10.cold dry skin 

Iodine ions from our diet (in salt) taken up by the thyroid follicle → iodine ions activated by enzyme and bind to thyrosine (anomo acid in thyroglobulin Tg) → T3 & T4 are produced & stored in Tg → Tg containing T3 & T4 is pulled into the follicle cell → lysosomal enzyme separate T3 & T4 from Tg → T3 & T4 diffuse in the blood.

• Uterine contraction
• Nursing
• Sexual arousal

• ADH:Supraoptic nucleus
• Oxytocin: paraventricular nucleus

• Source: Adipose tissue
• Target: Liver & connective tissue
• Effect: Reduce sensitivity to insulin (cause diabetes mellitus type 2)
• More fat=more resistin=less sensitivity to insulin

• Source: Adipose cells
• Target: Brain
• Effect: Effect appetite (decrease appetite)

• Source: Placenta
• Target: Pubic symphysis
• Effect: Relaxation of connective tissue (during child birth)

• Source: Placenta
• Target: Corpus luteum
• Effect: 1. Maintain pregnancy 2. Increase secretion of progesterone

• Source: Hypothalamus
• Target: Anterior pituitary gland
• Effects: Increase release of prolactin