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peripheral circulation consist of
arterial system, capillaries, and venous system
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respiratory pigment
once oxygen diffuses across the respiratory epithelium into the the blood it is bound via
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hemoglobin
give blood red color, ability to bind to oxygen greatly increases the carrying capacity of blood for oxygen. bright red when loaded and dark when deoxygenated
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heme
globin molecule, consist of two dimers: alpha1 beta1 and alpha2 beta2. tightly cohering group
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carboxyhemoglobin
hemoglobin saturated with carbon monoxide
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hemoglobin can combine with
4 oxygen one per heme
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hemoglobin-oxygen affinity is reduced by
- -elevated temp
- -binding organic phosphate ligands,2,3-diphosphoglycerate (DPG), ATP, or GTP by hemoglobin
- -decrease in pH
- -increase in CO2
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Bohrs effect
reduction in the oxygen affinity of hemoglobin caused by a decrease in pH
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total CO2 content
the sum of all forms of CO2 in the blood
-
CO2 enters and leaves the blood as
molecular CO2
-
in tissues CO2 enters the blood is either:
hydrated to form HCO3- or reacts with -NH2 groups of hemoglobin and other proteins to form carbamino compounds
-
chloride shift
HCO3- ions leave red blood cells.there is a net influx of Cl- ions from the plasma into the cells
-
in the lungs carbonic anhydrase is
embedded in the endothelial membranes, so HCO3- can be --> CO2 rapidly
-
factors influencing intracellular pH
- -buffering by physical buffers within cells (proteins and phosphates)
- -reaction of HCO3- with H+ ions, forming CO2, which then diffuses out of cell
- -passive diffusion or active transport of H+ ions
- -cation-exchange mechanisms, anion-exchange mechanisms, or both in the plasma membrane
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alveoli
blind ended, interconnected spaces
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trachea
main airway, divides into bronchi and bronchioles
-
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hyperventillation or hypobentilation
increase or decrease in the amount of air moved into or out of the lungs by changes in breathing such that ventilation no longer matches CO2 production and blood CO2 level change
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hyperpnea
increased lung ventilation due to increased breathing in response to elevated CO2 production ie excerise
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Apnea
absence of breathing
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dyspnea
labored breathing associated with an unpleasant sensation of breathlessness
-
polypnea
increase in breathing rate without an increase in the depth of breathing
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tidal volume
amount of air moved into or out of the lungs with each breath
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alveolar ventillation volume
amount of fresh air moving into/out of the alveolar air sacs = tidal volume - the anatomic dead-space volume
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vital capacity
maximum volume of air that can be move in/out of the lungs
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small mammals have a __ resting O2 uptake rate per unit bodyweight than large mammals and a __ alveolar surface per body weight
higher,larger
-
anatomic dead space volume
volume of air filled in non-respiratory tubes at end of inhalation
-
pulmonary circulation
deoxygenated blood from the pulmonary artery perfuses from lung takes O2 and leave CO2
-
bronchial circulation
comes from systemic (body) circulation and supplies lung tissues with O2
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in birds and mammals blood pressure in the pulmonary circulation is __ than in the systemic circulation
lower
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injection of norepinephrine or sympathetic nerve stimulation
causes a slight increase in resistance to blood flow while acetylcholine opposite
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lungs are multi chambered bags, suspended in __ and open to the exterior through __
pleural cavity, trachea
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thoracic cage
walls of the pleural cavity, formed by the ribs and diaphram
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pneumothorax
if thoracic cage is punctured air is drawn into pleural cavity
-
respiratory center is in
medulla oblongata
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parabronchi
in birds gas transfer in small air capillaries 10 um in diameter that branch from __
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neonatal respiratory distress syndrome
infants with no surfactant cant inflate lungs
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