Geography 5

-Provides the background concepts and theories

-forecast the size, composition, and distribution of the human population.

Statistical study of human population

-Because of its concern with spatial analysis

- location, density, pattern, and relationship to the physical environment

• -Record the frequency of occurrence of an event
• -during a given time frame for a designated population

Ex: Marriage rate per 1,000 in the US

Population group unified by a specified temporal characteristic

Ex: Age cohort of 0-4 years

Annual number of live births per 1000 population

Birth rates of less than 18 per thousand are characterized as low

• Developed countries- 11 is the average
• Less developed- 25 is the average

Between 18 and 30 per 1,000

Characteristic of developing countries

• -Average number of children born to woman during childbearing years
• -If she bore children at current year's rate for her age
• -More accurate than crude birth rate because it does not account for people who cannot reproduce

-2.1 or 2.3, not 2.0 because you need to account for infant and childhood mortalities

-Amount of fertility to replace population (higher in low-income, developing countries)

-Annual number of deaths per 1,000 people

Affected by a population's age distribution (elderly have a higher crude death rate)

Ratio of deaths of infants aged 1 year or under per 1,000 live births

-Means of visualizing and comparing

 -population's age and sex composition

• -A simple measure of the number of economic dependents
• -each 100 people in the productive years must support

• -Subtract crude death rate from crude birth rate
• -Natural-increases due to migration are not included

Expressed as a percentage

-Time it takes for a population to double if the present growth rate remains constant

-Use the rule of 70: Divide 70 by the growth rate to find doubling time

Dubious because they are based on assumptions

Doubling

• -Model traces the changing levels of human fertility and mortality
• -industrialization, health care improvements, urbanization, and changing cultural attitudes regarding childbearing.

• 1) High birth and high (but fluctuating) death rates, slow population growth
• 2) Rapid population growth as birthrates outstrip death rates 
• 3) Birth rates decline as people begin to control family size
• 4) Very low, nearly equal birth and death rates (aging)

-Formerly fatal epidemic diseases

-Became endemic

• -Summarizes the contribution made to regional population change over time
• -combination of natural change (births minus deaths) and net migration (difference between in-migration and out-migration)

-Condition for individual countries

-Births+Immigration=Deaths+Emigration

-Permanently inhabited areas of the earth's surface

Ex: City

-Uninhabited

-Or very sparsely occupied zone

Ex: Permanent ice caps

-Relationship between number of inhabitants and area they occupy

-Calculates the number of people per unit area of land

-Usually within areas of political entity

• -Measure of population pressure exerted on agricultural land
• -Total population divided by arable land area

-Reports number of residents per area of agriculturally productive land

-Excludes city populations from physiological density population calculation

-An environment cannot support its present population

-Having access to safe and nutritious food

-Meet individual dietary needs with cultural preference

-Estimates

-future population size, age, and sex composition based on current data.

-an English clergyman and economist

-Published essay on population in 1798

-Nature would enact destructive checks on population

-Advocated for population control programs

Updated Malthus' arguments for the 20th century

Governmental programs to reduce birth rates (population control)

Ex: China

-Rejected the Malthusian interpretation of poverty

-Overpopulation was actually the unemployed surplus labor population needed by the capitalist system

-Past agricultural improvements occurred as a result of population pressure

-In order to feed more people, farmers developed ways to use land/labor more intensively

-American Economist

-Argued that resources do not exist in nature but are created by human ingenuity

-Human ingenuity-world's ultimate resource base

Ex: Oil was just a black, gooey substance until humans utilized it

• -The level of fertility at which populations replace themselves
• -2.1

Number of births will continue to grow even as fertility rates per woman decline

-The study of how people earn their living

-How living systems vary from place to place

-How economic activities are spatially interrelated and linked

• Cultural considerations
• Technology
• Political Power
• Supply and Demand

• -The totality of tools and methods 
• -Used by a culture group in producing items essential to its subsistence and comfort

-Harvest or extract something from the Earth

-Add value to materials

-Combine or change them

Ex: copper smelting, steel making

• -Business/labor specializations
• -Provide services to the primary and
• secondary sectors

-Goods and services to businesses and individuals

Ex: Wholesale, retail trade, health care

• -Goods and services
• -Created for the use of producers and kinship groups
• -Developing nations
• -The sewing of clothes, hunting of own food

• -Communist Economy 
• -Agencies dispose of goods and services
• -Price control

-Growing of crops and the tending of livestock

-More than 1/3 of the world's land area is used agriculturally

-Large areas of land

-Minimal labor input per hectare

-Cultivation of small landholdings

-Great amounts of labor per hectare

-Wandering yet controlled movement of livestock

-Dependent on natural forage

-Most extensive type of land use system

-Greatest amount of land area per person sustained

-Farmer rotates fields rather than crops

-Maintains soil productivity

-Population increases necessitate increased inputs of labor and technology

-Compensate for reductions in the natural yields of swidden farming

-Seed and management techniques for intensive agriculture

-Designed to bring larger harvests from a given area of farmland

Ex: Plant breeding, GMO plants

• -Rings of activity
• -More perishable commodities close to market
• -Less perishable commodities farther away
• -The greater the transportation costs of products, the lower the rent for land

• -Crops
• -High yield and high market value per unit of land

• -Farms that produce a wide range of vegetables and fruits
• -Found near most medium-size and large cities

-Large wheat farms and livestock ranching -These are generally farther from the market center)

-Introduction of foreign investment, management, and marketing

-Into an indigenous culture and economy often

-Often employs nonnative labor force to farm an introduced crop from foreign markets

-Harvesting natural resources

-Can be easily depleted through overpopulation and extinction

-Remove nonrenewable metallic and nonmetallic minerals from Earth's crust

-Ex: Mining and quarrying

-Naturally occurring materials

-Societies perceive them to be useful

-Materials or energy sources

-Replenished through natural processes

(sun's energy, wind, water)

-Generated in nature so slowly that for all practical purposes, their supply is finite

-Problem where resource is available to all

-Person thinks he or she is best served by exploiting resource to maximum

-Eventual depletion

The breeding of fish in freshwater ponds, lakes, and canals or in fenced-off coastal bays and estuaries or enclosures

• -Preagricultural people
• - Dependent on the year-round availability of plants and animals

-Rudimentary stone tools and weapons helped them

the number of persons supportable within a given area

• -Nearly everyone in the world would come to obtain their food via agriculture
• -Rather than hunting and gathering

Spinning, weaving, sailboat

• -People make locational locational, production, or purchasing decisions
• -What is most cost-effective and advantageous

• -Supply equals demand
• -Satisfies the needs of consumers and the profit motivation of suppliers

Transforming raw materials into usable products

Ex: Pouring iron and steel, sewing jeans

-Relatively unaffected no matter where the industry is located within a regional or national setting

Ex: Wage rate set by a labor contract

Show significant differences from place to place

Meat packing, orange juice concentrate, freezing of food (reduces spoilage)

-Transportation charges for sending finished goods to market are a relatively high proportion of the total value of the good

-The tendency of an industry to locate close to its market

-Some producers are inseparable from the immediate markets that they serve

-Widely distributed

Ex: bakeries, newspapers, dairies

1) Designed to minimize transportation costs

2) Soda, water to the concentrate

3) Cheapest means of long-distance freight movement

4) Standardized shipping containers which are tracked by computer

-Charges

-Loading, transporting, unloading goods

-Charges

 -Paperwork, loading, packing, and unloading of a shipment

-Included in freight rates

-Expenses for movement of commodities that have been loaded

-Sites where goods have to be transferred or transshipped

-From one center to another

-At ports where a ship must be unloaded onto a railcar or truck

-Explains the optimum location of a manufacturing establishment

 -Based on minimizing three basic expenses:

-Transportation costs, labor costs, and agglomeration costs

• -Clustering of productive activities and people
• -For mutual advantage

• 1. An area is completely uniform physically, politically, culturally, and technologically. Uniform or isotropic assumption
• 2. Manufacturing involves a single product to be shipped to a single market in a known location
• 3. Inputs involve raw materials from more than one known source location
• 4. Labor is infinitely available but not immobile
• 5. Transportation routes are not fixed but connect origin and destination by the shortest path; and transport costs directly reflect the weight of items shipped and the distance moved

In many industrial processes it is possible to replace a declining amount of one input with an increase in another or to increase transportation costs while simultaneously reducing land rent

The set of points delimiting the area within which an economic activity can be profitably carried out

A less-than-ideal best location, but one providing an acceptable level of utility or satisfaction

A descriptive term applied to manufacturing activities for which the cost of transporting material or product is not important in determining location of production; an industry or firm showing neither market nor material orientation

The savings to an individual enterprise derived from the locational association with a cluster of other similar economic activities, such as factors or retail stores

Ex: linkage between firms and savings from worker training programs

The basic structure of services, installations, and facilities needed to support industrial, agricultural, or other economic activity, including transportation and communication, along with water, power, and other utilities

The cumulative processes by which a given change (such as a new plant opening) sets in motion a sequence of further industrial employment and industrial growth

The location of industrial or other activities away from established agglomerations in response to growing costs of congestion, competition, and regulation

Ex: Relocation of firms to nonmetropolitan areas

Assembly-line work that breaks the production process into many repetitive, low-skill tasks in order to produce large quantities of identical commodities for mass markets efficiently

Smaller production runs of a great variety of goods aimed at a smaller market

Seeks to reduce inventories by purchasing inputs for arrival just in time to use and producing output just in time to sell

Ability to move from one factory process to another as market demand dictates

Areas and countries can best improve their economies and living standards through specializations and trade, and each country should concentrate on the production of those items for which it has the greatest relative advantage over other areas and imports all goods

Producing abroad parts or products for domestic use or sale

Foreign-owned manufacturing plant located in Mexico for low cost assembly of clothing, electronics, automobiles, and other export products

The practice of either hiring foreign workers or, commonly, contracting with a foreign third-party service provider to take over and run particular business process or operations, such as call centers or accounting, billing, and similar nonproductive "back office" aspects of manufacturing

A spatial rearrangement of production in which developing countries capture more of the world's manufacturing activity while developing countries shift to services

Ex: China

Private firms that have established branch operations in foreign nations

Ex: Wal-Mart

The purchase and construction of factories and other fixed assets by TNCs

Ex: US companies purchasing factories in Hong Kong, China, Mexico

Robotics, computers, software

The set of activities involved in the production of a single good or service.

Ex: For high-tech manufacturing, such as Iphones

An export-orientated manufacturing enterprise located anywhere within a host country that benefits from special investment incentives

Contains the majority of the urban population of the two countries, their densest and best-developed transportation network, the largest number of their manufacturing establishments, and the preponderance of heavy industry

The declining relative share of manufacturing in a nation's economy

Has picked up pace in the last two decades due to recessions, etc

Consist of business and labor specialties and provide services in the primary and secondary sectors, to the general community, and to individuals

Performed for individuals for individuals and performed for individuals and include entertainment, tourism, restaurants.

Performed for corporations

Ex: Finance, insurance, real estate

Firms chose locations that give them a measure of spatial monopoly so that they maximize revenues rather than minimizing costs as in Weber's model

Not sensitive to a change in price

Energies and technologies different societies use

Social Organization

The extent to which the human and natural resources of an area or country have been brought into full productive use

Suggests the possibility or desirability of applying additional capital, labor, or technology to the resource base of an area to permit the present population to improve its material well-being

The total value of goods and services produced per year at home or abroad by domestically-owned interests within a country, formerly called "gross national product"

A measurement of a country's wealth that takes account of what money actually buys in the country, relative to the cost of living

Part of a national economy that involves productive labor not subject to formal systems of control or payment

Ex: Taxation or black market

The provision of sufficient quantities of safe and nutritious food

Should be a primary goal of development

The loss of a developing country's most educated citizens as they emigrate in search of better educational and career opportunities in developed countries

The totality of tools and methods used by a culture group to produce items for subsistence and comfort

The contrast between the technology available in developed core regions and that present in peripheral areas of underdevelopment

The diffusions to or acquisition by one culture or region of the technology possessed by another, usually more developed, society

• 1) Traditional societies are static with low productivity
• 2) Preconditions for takeoff are established
• 3) Critical development that lasts 20-30 years
• 4) Economic output grows faster than population
• 5) Population achieves consumption levels far above basic needs
• 6) Information replaces energy as key productive resource

The uneven spatial pattern observed in standards of living and levels of economic development

A model of the spatial structure of an economic system in which underdeveloped or declining peripheral areas are defined with respect to their dependence on a dominating or developed core region

A process through which tendencies for economic growth are self-reinforcing, and it tends to favor major cities over less-developed regions

Work to diffuse benefits outward from the center in the form of higher prices paid for needed materials or through the dispersion of technology to branch plants or contract suppliers to lower-cost regions of production

A theory that attempts to explain the patterns and processes of economic development by extending the core-periphery model to the international scene

A disparaging reference to economic and political policies by which major developed countries are seen to retain or extend influence over the economies of less developed countries and peoples

Revived the liberal faith in the market mechanism and the private sector by eliminating quotas and tariffs

Flows of money sent home by workers who have left their homes in developing countries to take jobs in developed countries

Ex: Mexicans working in the US

Socially constructed--not biologically based-- distinctions between femininity and masculinity

Ex: Shaped by religion

A continuous, extended urban area formed by the growing together of several formerly separate, expanding cities

Ex: Los Angeles county

The productive area surrounding a population center

Nodes for the distribution of economic goods and services

Small towns would provide low-order commodities, and cities would provide luxury goods

Areas outside a city that are still affected by it

Ex: TV market network for a sports team

A ranking of cities based on their size and functional complexity

Large urban cities that are command and control points for the global economy

Ex: London, New York, Tokyo

The population of any given town will be inversely proportional to its rank in the hierarchy; that is, the nth-ranked city will be 1/n the size of the largest city

• -Considerably larger than twice the size of the second largest city
• -In a country or region

• -One of two or more nearby cities 
• -cooperate by developing transportation links and communications infrastructure joining them

Smaller in size and have less functional complexity than cities, but they still have a nuclear business concentration

A functionally specialized segment of a larger urban complex

The principal core of a larger urban area, separately incorporated and ringed by its dependent suburbs

• -Continuously built-up landscape
• -defined by building and population densities -with no reference to political boundaries

• -A large-scale functional entity
• -discontinuously built up 
• -operates as an integrated economic whole

-Downtown

-retail stores, officers, and cultural activities are concentrated

-Building densities are high

-Intersection

-major mass transit lines converge

Ex: a train station

• -Urban Community
• -Nested Set of Rings for residential uses  -increasing distances in all directions from the CBD fringe

• -Shows urban land use
• -Wedge-shaped sectors
• -Radiate outward from central business districts along transportation corridors

Inner city surrounded by large metropolitan area

-Once vibrant districts

-Left behind as polluted sites

-Movement into inner portions of American cities

-Middle and high-income people

-Completely change social structure

A description of land uses in Latin American cities

wedge-shaped sectors and concentric rings emanating from a central business district.