4. Store starch in plasids in their cells (carbs for energy)
3 Main Protist Eukaryotic Groups in Archaeplastida:
1. Red algae
2. Chlorophytes
3. Charophyceans
(4th is Non-protist Land Plants)
Crop Domestication & 3 first dominant crops
- Maize, wheat, rice.
Dawn of civilization 13,000 - 10,000 YA.
Could have determined who became dominant culture (due to LUCK of who lived WHERE?). Move away from hunter/gatherer lifestyle.
Ecosystem services
A benefit an organism gives us naturally
ex. Plants photosynthesize for sugar/glucose & byproduct is Oxygen we use. Loss of complex plant communities to cultivation & suburbanization has resulted in concentration of CO2 -> CLIMATE CHANGE! (process of chopping down trees releases even MORE!)
Dominant Primary Producers:
PLANTS!!
They are the base for most major eco-systems
*KNOW THIS PHYLOGENY OF GREEN PLANTS*
5 Main steps in Plants transition from water to land (in order trait evolved):
1. Cuticle= Waxy covering, prevents water loss (like skin)
2. Pores= Holes that allow for gas exchanges. (Need CO2 & oxygen)
3. Stomata= Opens/closes w/guard cells & controls water loss through pores
*PLANTS UPRIGHT*
4. Vascular tissue= Leaves different (in dry, they're much smaller surface area)
5. Roots. Absorb nutrients & anchor
Evolution of vascular system
(Series of elongated tube-cells end to end)
Start with: Simple water-conducting cells. Little structural support. Found in mosses.
1. First vascular tissue: Primary wall reinforced w/LIGNIN rings for support (LIGNIN=Polymer w/high mechanical strength) Found in fossils.
2. Tracheids: Same wall w/Lignin & GAPS. Found in all vascular plants.
3. Vessels: Gaps in 1o & 2o cell walls (efficient water transport). Found in angeosperms
Green Algae:
(Similarities & differences to land plants)
LICHENS are an association b/w fungi & green algae
Shared traits w/land plants:
- Photosynthetic pigments
- Cell wall mostly cellulose
- Starch synthesized as storage
Differences to land plants:
MOSTLY aquatic
Have swimming gametes
Submerged in water
Small, simple body. No need for vascular system to transport water & nutrients
Cell dinsity similar to that of water (allows for absorption of water & nutrients)
No need for support tissues, since not upright
What is the key difference b/w aquatic & terrestrial plants?
= Reproduction.
Old plant lineages - Swimming gametes. Required water.
Algae's zygotes are the unlike humans; they have a _____________ haploid & a ____________________ diploid.
(Results in no alternation of generations)
- multicellular
- unicellular
SPOROPHYTE:
(2n)
The diploid individual which produces reproductive cells called spores. These form gametophytes through meiosis...
GAMETOPHYTES:
(n)
The haploid individual which produces haploid gametes. The union of 2 gametes (fertilization) results in diploid zygote which gives rise to new sporophyte
It is produced from mitotic cell division of spores, which are produced by meiosis in sporophytes.
In land plants, both stages (gametophyte & sporophyte) are __________________.
(Results in alternation of generations)
- multicellular
Non-vascular plants reproduction method:
IN WATER ->Sperm swim to egg
(Swimming gametes)
GAMETOPHYTE DOMINANT
Sporophyte dependent on gametophyte for nutrition b/c it's large & long-lived
Almost always multicellular haploid but ZYGOTE is DIPLOID & NOT multicellular
NO alternation of generations
ex. mosses
Seedless vascular plants reproduction method:
IN WATER -> Sperm swims to egg
(Swimming gametes)
BUT Spores dispersed by wind
SPOROPHYTE DOMINANT (but when young, dependent on gametophyte)
Gametophyte reduces in size, short-lived
Has roots & leaves
Sporophyte grows out & BECOMES DOMINANT
ex. FERNS
Seed plants reproduction method:
GYMNOSPERMS (Gymno ="Bare")
A plant, such as a conifer, whose seeds are not enclosed within an ovary.
NO MORE WATER!
SPOROPHYTE DOMINANT
Gametophyte greatly reduced
In huge pine tree, gametophyte is small (in cones) & seed is embryo of early gametophyte.
Winds disperse pollen
ex. CONIFERS/ Pine trees
Flowering plants
ANGIOSPERMS (Angio= "Vessel or container")
a plant that has flowers and produces seeds enclosed within a carpel.
NO MORE WATER!
SPOROPHYTE DOMINANT!
Gametophyte greatly reduced
Winds disperse pollen. Pollen VERY WELL PROTECTED. Survives in the wind.
Lands on female, seed created.
FRUITS ARE PLANT OVUMS
SEED DISPERSED VIA WIND OR ANIMALS
ex. flowering plants, fruits, veggies
Main 4 evolutionary changes in plant reproduction
1. Dominance from Gametophyte -> Sporophyte
2. Sporophyte Dependent -> Sporophyte Independent
3.Extreme reduction of Gametophye:
- Pollen grain (male)
- Embryo sac (female)
4. Fertilization: Independent of water
NON-VASCULAR PLANTS
& 3 main examples
BRYOPHYTES
Mneumonic: Little Horny Mice
OLDEST
NOT tall; small bodies
NO vascular tissue (no transport)
NO true roots, stems leaves
- Gametophyte dominant
- Sporophyte dependent
- Water required for fertilization
1. Liverworts (Hepaticophyta)
- Thallus (entire body)
- Air pores which DONT OPEN & CLOSE (no stomata yet)
2. Hornwarts (Anthocerophyta)
- Stomata present on sporophytes (opens/closes)
3. Mosses (Bryophyta) MOST DIVERSE
- Stomata present on sporophytes
- Primitive UNREINFORCED water-conducting cells. (Tubes that grow tall to disperse spores)
SEEDLESS VASCULAR PLANTS
& 3 main examples
Vascular tissues present for transport
- TRACHEIDS reinforced w/Lignin
True ROOTS, STEMS, LEAVES
- Sporophyte dominant
- Gametophyte Independent
- Water REQUIRED for fertilization
ex. ferns, lycophytes, horsetails
1. Lycophytes (Lycophyta)
- Oldest lineage w/true roots & leaves
2. Ferns (Pteridophyta)
- Diverse in tropics
- Grow as EPIPHYTES (Since no light @ floor)
- Grow on trees or other objects
- Not rooted in soil, not parasitic
3. Selaginella (Resurrection Plant)
aka ROSE OF JERICHO.
- Dormant most of year, soaks up water VERY quickly, goes gree, photosynthesis quickly before going dormant again
Purpose of Leaves, Roots, Stems:
Leaves = Photosynthesis
Roots = Absorb nutrients, anchor plant
Stems = Vascular system. Transport nutrients
5 Derived Traits of Seed Plants:
1. Reduced gametophytes
2. Heterospory (sperm&egg)
3. Ovules (female)
4. Pollen (male)
5. Seeds
Homospores vs Heterospores:
4 Phyla of Gymnosperms:
1. Cycads (Cycadophyta)
2. Ginkgo (Ginkgophyta)
3. Gnetophytes (Gnetophyta)
4. Conifers (Coniferophyta)
Gymnosperm:
Gnetophytes (Gnetophyta)
Mneumonic: Neat OLD fight
OLD, they survive 1,000 - 2,000 yrs
Woody vines, shrubs, trees
Pollen in cones, wind-dispersed
Angiosperm-like features:
- Vessels
- Flower-like reproductive features
Gymnosperms:
Conifers (Coniferophyta)
Wody shrubs or trees
Most evergreen; a few deciduous leaves
needle- or scale-like
Resistant to drought & freezing
Pollen in cones; wind-dispersed
HIGHER diversity FARTHER from equator
Monoecious = male & female cones separate, but usually on the same plant
Big cone = F
Small cone = M
Conifers:
Oldest, Biggest, Tallest
Oldest- Bristlecone Pine- 4900 years old
Biggest- Giant Sequoia- 250 ft
Tallest- Redwoods- 375 ft
Anthophyta:
Angiosperms (characteristics)
Vessels: Water transport
Flowers: Attract pollinators
Fruits: Seed dispersal
Ovary (fruit): Encloses seeds
Flower Reproductive Structure
Male: Stamen -> Anther & Filament
Female: Carpel -> Stigma, Style, Ovary
Bees who try to mate with orchids are a product of ________________.
Coevolution
Monicot vs Eudicot
(2 main differences)
Monicot: Flowers multiples of 3, Veins are parralel
Eudicot: Flowers multples of 4 or 5, Veins are netlike
MONOCOTS: EUDICOTS:
Caryophyllales
Still undergo photosynthesis, get carbon from CO2, but live in poor soils w/no NUTRIENTS so they SUPPLIMENT those w/insects (for nitrogen)
ex. cacti, carnations, ice plants, & most carniverous plants like pitcher plant (tree shrew toilet)
Characteristics of Fungi:
Eukaryotes (single or multi-celled)
Heterotrophs (absorb organic compounds from other organisms (dead or alive)
Outside body secretes digestive enzymes onto food sources & absorb released nutrients
Cell walls of CHITIN (not cellulose)
Mycology = Study of fungi
Two fungus growth:
1. Single-Celled: Yeasts.
ex. used in breads & beers
2. Multi-celled: Mycelia
Mass of underground filaments that form body of a fungus
Define Ploidy, Haploid, Diploid
Number of sets of chromosomes in a cell
Haploid= 1 set of chromosomes
Diploid= 2 sets of chromosomes
HUMAN REPRODUCTION vs
ALGAE REPRODUCTION
(n=haploid, 2n=diploid)
Humans: Parents (2n) donate (n) haploid cells (egg & sperm) -> Meiosis -> Fuse (fertilize) to form zygote -> (2n) mitosis & growth into (2n) adult
Algae: Multicellular adult (n) donates (n) eggs & sperm, they fuse (fertilize) to form (2n) Zygote which is UNICELLULAR -> Meiosis -> (n) spores -> Germination of (n) adult
DIFFERENCES: IN ALGAE, ZYGOTE IS ONLY DIPLOID CELL & NOT MULTICELLULAR.
IN HUMANS, ONLY HAPLOID CELLS ARE SPERM & EGG
Hyphae
Make up the mycelium of a fungus.
Primarily haploid
Sometimes heterokaryotic: ("different nuclei")
hypha cell contains 2 haploid nuclei; one from each parent
Fungus Reproduction
Start w/mycelium: 2 options
1. Asexual (n) Spores through Mitosis
2. Sexual: Mating types M or F but not distinctive. Hyphae membranes meet & fuse. Nuclei DONT (Heterokaryotic (n+n)) 1 cell, 2 nuclei. Fuse in karyogamy. Get zygote (2n) then Meiosis
Fairy Rings
Ring of fungi. Can grow overnight (after rain). All from one individual of underground mycelium. Dutch folklore= Where the devil churns his milk
Ascomycetes
Mneumonic: My Seats are SACS
"Sac Fungi"
Ascus=Pore-like structure. Sexual. In sac.
Live in marine, freshwater & land
ex. morels & truffles (only underground, tht's why so expensive)
Basidiomycetes
"Club Fungi"
Basidium= Clublike structure, Transient diploid stage in the life cycle
- Ergot (Grows on wheat. Responsible for Salem Witch trials, delirious)
- Cordycepts= Mind control fungus in insects. GROWS OUT OF HEADS. Thousands of species, that each specialize in a species of animal. Grows out of body & spores disperse out
3 Fungal life strategies:
1. Saprophytes= Degrade dead organisms
2. Parasites= Attack living organisms
3. Mutualists= Coexist w/another organism
3 Fungal Mutualisms:
1. LICHENS: Fungus & Green algae.
Basiodiomycota= Photosynthetic component: cyanobacteria or single-celled green algae. Evolved independently many times.
Harsh environments ex. Antarctic
2. Mycorrhizae (80% of plant spp.)
Plant roots & soil fungi.
Benefits plant:
- Increased uptake of phosphorus & nitrogen
- Protects roots against attacks
Benefits fungus:
- Plant provides nutrients
3. Fungus-Animal Symbiosis
Helping break down plant materials
ex. in guts of cows/grazing animals
ex. Leaf-cutter ants (DONT EAT THE LEAVES, THEY BRING PIECES OF THE LEAVES TO FEED THE FUNGUS & EAT THAT!)
What feature is common to prokaryotes, fungi, and plants?
E) cell walls
4. (4 pts) Which of the following statements about the domain Bacteria is true?
E) All bacteria lack a nucleus.
Which of the following options correctly represents the most likely sequence of the evolution of plants, from earliest to most recent?
Define the alternation of generations in a plant life cycle? Be sure to name each stage and describe whether each is haploid or diploid.
A multicellular sporophyte (diploid) stage and a multicellular gametophyte (haploid) stage.
True/False: The male/female division in the life cycle of angiosperms occurs in the sporophyte stage
a. true
b. false
a. true
Which of the following most INCORRECTLY pairs a cell w/the compound that makes up the structural base of its cell wall?
B. protists = calcium carbonate
Protists cell wall is made of silica, protein, and cellulose
Protists that eat other organisms via phagocytosis (i.e. digesting prey intracellularly) are generally called:
C. protozoa
A single-celled eukaryote has chloroplasts to obtain energy from sunlight & absorbs dead organic material from the environment in order to get building-block compounds. This is a:
C. photoheterotroph
Photo = sunlight
Hetero troph = Other feeding (from environment, not from self)
A fungal spore has 8 picograms of DNA in its nucleus. After plasmogamy, but before karyogamy, there are(is) _______ nuclei(nucleus) and _______ picograms of DNA within a single cell
C. 2 - 16
plasmogamy = fusion of cytoplasm. Heterokaryotic (unfused nuclei from 2 parents)
karyogamy = Diploid (FUNGI ZYGOTE ONLY DIPLOID STAGE) Nuclei fuse
The oldest & largest non-clonal organisms are:
a. pterophytes
b. animals
c. angiosperms
d. mushrooms
e. gymnosperms
In alternations of generations there is a gametophyte phase, which is _____________ and a sporophyte phase, which is ____________.