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hindsight bias
saying you knew what was gonna happen after it happens
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overconfidence error
being too certain in one's judgements
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coincidence error
perceiving order in random events
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theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
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hypothesis
a testable theory
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case studies
observing one person in-depth
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naturalistic observation
gathering data but not intervening
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surveys/interviews
having other people report their own attitudes/behavior
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random sampling
a sample in which every person in the group has an equal chance of being included
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correlation
a measure of how closely two factors vary together (scatter plots reveal correlation)
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incorrectly interpreting a correlation between two factors as evidence of causation is best avoided by making use of
experiments
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experimentation
manipulating one factor in a situation to determine it's effect
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independent variable
manipulated independently
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dependent variable
variable expected to change by manipulating independent variable
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control group
does not get disturbed (no variable changed)
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experimental group
is disturbed (variable manipulated)
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measures of central tendency
mode, median, mean
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a correlation coefficient is a statistical measure of the
extent to which two factors vary together
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control condition
a statement describing how a researcher manipulates an independent variable
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as members of the human family, we all share a common
biological heritage
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behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
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environment
every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us
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genes
the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes
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genome
the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes
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identical/fraternal twins
- identical: same egg/sperm
- fraternal: 2 eggs, 2 sperm
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temperament
a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
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molecular genetics
the subbfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes
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heritability
the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes
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evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
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gender
the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female
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culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
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individualism
giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications
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collectivism
giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family) and defining one's identity accordingly
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gender role
a set of expected behavior for males or females
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social learning theory
the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished
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psychodynamic theory
view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences
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psychoanalysis
Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts
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ID
operates on pleasure principle and aims to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives
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ego
operates on the reality principle and mediates among the ID, superego, and reality
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superego
represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgement
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Oedipus complex
a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father
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defense mechanisms
- regression: reverting to a safer time in life
- introjection: taking on the values of others
- denial: closing one's eyes to the existence of a threatening aspect of reality
- sublimation: diverting sexual or aggressive energy into other channels
- displacement: shifting impulses to another that seems less threatening
- reaction formation: actively expressing the opposite behavior possibly to remove focus from self
- projection: attributing unacceptable traits to others, but not to self
- rationalization: justification of certain behaviors
- repression: threatening or painful thoughts and feelings that a persons unconsciously excludes from reality
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humanistic theory
view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth
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self-actualization
according to Maslow, the ultimate need that arises after basic needs are met
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Big Five
conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness. extraversion
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social-cognitive perspective
views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits and their social context
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psychological disorder
deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional patterns of thoughts, feelings, or behaviors
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multiaxial diagnosis
- axis 1: which disorder present
- axis 2: personality disorder/mental retardation
- axis 3: medical condition
- axis 4: psychosocial or environmental problems
- axis 5: what is the Global Assessment Factor of this person's functioning (1-100)
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anxiety disorders
characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety
- general anxiety: always tense
- panic disorder: panic attacks
- phobia: irrational fear
- OCD: repeated thoughts/actions
- PTSD: reliving scary moments
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mood disorders
characterized by emotional extremes
- depressive disorder: being sad
- bipolar disorder: manic/depressive
- mania: hyperactivity and optimism
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schizophrenia
a group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, emotions, and behaviors
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dissociative disorders
disorder in which conscious awareness becomes separated from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings
DID: dissociative identity disorder
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personality disorders
characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning
antisocial personality: a person with no conscience or sense of wrongdoing, even towards friends and family members
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