School-Intelligence

Francis Galton

• 1. It is a unitary faculty
• 2. It is an inherited trait
• 3. It is normally distributed in the population

Francis Galton

Charles Spearman

• 1. General ability (g): common to all intellectual tasks
• 2. Specific ability (s): specific to a given task

Louis Thurstone

• 1. Word fluency
• 2. Memory
• 3. Spatial relationships
• 4. Reasoning

JP Guilford

• 1. Divergent thinking
• 2. Convergent thinking

The ability to generate new, creative, and different ideas using nonlogical processes and flexibility to find multiple solutions

The ability to group divergent ideas and synthesize them into one unifying concept

Raymond Cattell

• 1. Fluid intelligence
• 2. Crystallized intelligence

On-the-spot reasoning ability, including the ability to see complex relationships and solve problems; includes inductive and deductive reasoning, is relatively culture free, and is not dependent on formal instruction

Fluid; crystallized

Includes areas such as vocabulary, reading, numerical skills, and information knowledge; is almost entirely dependent on acquired cultural and educational experience

Fluid; crystallized

John Carroll

• 1. Stratum III: g, or general intelligence
• 2. Stratum II: consists of eight broad abilities (e.g., crystallized intelligence)
• 3. Stratum I: specific abilities that are each linked to one of the second stratum abilities (e.g., crystallized intelligence is linked to language development, comprehension, and communication ability)

It presently consists of 10 broad cognitive abilities and over 70 narrow-stratum abilities

The CHC Theory of Cognitive Abilities

• 1. Comprehension-knowledge intelligence (Gc)
• 2. Fluid intelligence/reasoning (Gf)
• 3. Short-term memory (Gsm)
• 4. Long-term storage and retrieval (Glr)
• 5. Processing speed (Gs)
• 6. Visual processing (Gv)
• 7. Auditory processing (Ga)

He viewed it in a global way and asserted that high ability on one intellectual task is reasonably predictive of high ability on another; he believed intelligence centered on the ability to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment

Different measures of intelligence; measures of different kinds of intelligence

Howard Gardner

• 1. Linguistic
• 2. Logical-mathematical
• 3. Musical
• 4. Bodily-kinesthetic
• 5. Spatial
• 6. Interpersonal
• 7. Intrapersonal
• 8. Naturalist

They are used simultaneously and tend to complement one another; all are needed, are equally important, and each individual possesses all to some extent; they can be developed by exposure to appropriate learning experiences

Educational; theorists, teachers and policy makers use it to inform pre-K-12 schools, vocational programs, and adult education initiatives

Robert Sternberg

• 1. Componential (analytical): methods that are used to process and analyze information
• 2. Experiential (creative): how unfamiliar circumstances and tasks are dealt with
• 3. Practical (contextual): how people respond to their environment

50

.60; .80

Higher

.85-.88

.67 to .75

.53 to .58

.39 to .50

.22

.45-.49

.24-.46

.18

.17

• 1. Infants given individual attention by an adoptive caregiver showed significant improvement in IQ scores compared with control infants who remained in the orphanage
• 2. 20 years later, all the children who were given individualized caretaking were self-supporting, while no children from the control group were independently functioning

Environmental; genetic

Low

Very low-scoring

Babies who are at high risk for delayed or abnormal development

30; 50; 80

48; 84

64; 74

Genetic; genetic; environmental

No difference; a small male advantage

They have declined

A male advantage of about 2 IQ points

Males tend to score higher on both the math and verbal sections

• 1. Verbal skills
• 2. Processing speed
• 3. Less likelihood of having a reading disorder

• 1. Math skills
• 2. Broad visual-spatial ability

Spatial ability

In male rats, the right hemisphere is thicker than the left, with the reverse being true in female rats

Male rats tend to perform better than female rats

Greater quantity of circulating testosterone in the brains of prenatal males slows the growth rate of the left hemisphere and results in relatively greater development of the right hemisphere; a lack of testosterone in females results in the reverse pattern

Dissimilar cultural and social experiences

• 1. As the number of children in the family increases, the amount of intellectual stimulation and other important family resources available to each child declines
• 2. Family size is negatively correlated with the intellectual ability of children
• 3. Children born closer together in age will suffer more from the adverse effects of a large family

Caucasians tend to score higher than African Americans on tests of intellectual functioning

These differences are due primarily to innate, genetic differences between Caucasians and African Americans

It has been criticized for a number of methodological shortcomings, including the failure to consider the effect of environmental factors or the cultural bias of standard intelligence tests

They studied African American children who were adopted by Caucasian parents with above average intelligence and SES. The biological parents of the children had average to below average IQ's, while the children had a mean IQ of 106, which is well above the national mean for African American children

Examiner race is unrelated to performance

It is related to performance for both Caucasian and African American children

Failed

The continued year-on-year rise of IQ test scores

IQ test scores consistently increased over the previous 70 years in the US and other industrialized countries; it involved an increase of at least three IQ points per decade

Fluid

Environmental

Improved nutrition, better education, smaller family size, environmental diversity, heterosis (improved or increased function of any biological quality in a hybrid offspring), and gradual improvement of test-taking skills

The IQ increase continues for individuals with IQs ranging from 70-109, but has reversed for those with IQs of 110 or higher

Tests of intelligence were originally developed by Alfred Binet, in collaboration with Theodore Simon, and they were used to discriminate mentally retarded from non-mentally retarded Parisian school children

Terman in 1916

5th edition, revised in 2003

2-85+

• 1. Diagnosis of developmental abilities and exceptionalities
• 2. Early childhood assessment
• 3. Psychoeducational evaluations
• 4. Abilities and aptitudes research
• 5. Career, clinical, forensic, and neuropsychological assessment

• 1. Fluid Reasoning (FR)
• 2. Knowledge (KN)
• 3. Quantitative Reasoning (QR)
• 4. Visual-Spatial Processing (VS)
• 5. Working Memory (WM)

The Catell-Horn-Carroll theory

Verbal and nonverbal

Vocabulary (verbal) and Object Series/Matrices (nonverbal)

Performance on these subtests determines the individual's ability level and starting point for continued testing

Chronological age; estimated ability level

Testing on subsequent subtests starts at a level just below the derived ability level and continues until three or four items at two consecutive age levels are failed (this is the ceiling level)

Mental age divided by chronological age then multiplied by 100 to yield the IQ (For example, for an 8yo passing items for a 6yo, but failing items above 6, the IQ would be 6/8 x 100 =75)

An IQ score derived from standardized scores that have the same mean and standard deviation across all age levels

Using the derivation IQ, scores can be compared across ages

Mean is 10, standard deviation is 3

• 1. Factor index
• 2. Domain scores
• 3. Abbreviated battery IQ
• 4. Full Scale

The Factor Index composite score corresponds to each of the 5 content areas in the SB5 ans is derived from combining one nonverbal subtest with its verbal complement

They represent Verbal and Nonverbal IQ and are based on the subtests of the respective five factor index scales

Ten, two (one verbal and one nonverbal) for each of the five cognitive factors

It is a composite score based on the two routing subtests

It is a composite score of all 10 subtests

Mean is 100; SD is 15

2008

16 years to 90 years, 11 months

Cattell-Horn-Caroll; neurocognitive

10; 5

Mean = 100; SD = 15

• 1. Verbal Comprehension (VCI)
• 2. Perceptual Reasoning (PRI)
• 3. Working Memory (WMI)
• 4. Processing Speed (PSI)

They were removed

The VCI and WMI approximate the VIQ; the PSI and PRI approximate the PIQ

• 1. Considering FSIQ, index scores, subtest scores
• 2. Comparing pairs of "clinical clusters" which are composed of 2 or 3 subtests
• 3. Interpreting the index profile

It is based on all 10 core subtests and is the total combined performance of the 4 index scores

It is created from the VCI and PRI and is useful when seeking a summary score that minimizes the impact of working memory and processing speed

• 1. Score patterns that characterize specific groups
• 2. Psychometric improvements, such as increased test floor and ceiling (40 to 160), updated norms, and reduced item bias

Practice effects , or increased scores, on retesting have been shown except in a portion of older individuals, ages 70 and older

• 1. Visual Puzzles
• 2. Figure Weights
• 3. Cancellation

• 1. Object Assembly
• 2. Picture Arrangement
• 3. Digit Symbol - Copy
• 4. Digit Symbol - Incidental Learning

Reasoning, comprehension, and concept formation utilizing verbal abilities

They tend to "hold" well with age and provide a premorbid functioning estimate by assessing areas associated with long-term memory

• 1. Similarities
• 2. Vocabulary
• 3. Information
• 4. Comprehension (supplemental)

Participants are asked to indicate similarities between two things

Abstract and verbal concept formation reasoning and logical thinking; it involves crystallized intelligence, auditory comprehension, and memory

• 1. Severe brain dysfunction
• 2. Schizophrenia
• 3. Depression
• 4. Long-term deterioration

Participants are asked to provide definitions for words

Learning ability, fund of knowledge, concept formation, long-term memory, and language development

Vocabulary

• 1. Poor education
• 2. Low intelligence
• 3. Alternate cultural background
• 4. Early brain injury

Participants are asked to answer general knowledge questions

Long-term memory and available crystallized intelligence resulting from an interaction of ability and cultural experience

Information

• 1. Poor education
• 2. Low intelligence
• 3. Alternate cultural background

Participants are asked to solve practical problems and explain the meaning of proverbs

Comprehension

Judgment, insight, and common sense

• 1. Impaired judgment
• 2. Brain damage
• 3. Psychosis

Fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain, assessing visual perception and organization, nonverbal concept formation, simultaneous processing, visual-motor coordination, learning, and the ability to separate figure and ground in visual stimuli

Participants are asked to manipulate identical blocks to form a design

Visual-motor coordination, nonverbal concept formation, and visual-spatial comprehension

Block Design

• 1. Hyperactivity
• 2. Anxiety
• 3. Paranoia
• 4. Brain Damage

Participants are asked to respond regarding which item comes next in a series of matrices

Non-verbal reasoning such as analogy and serial reasoning, visual information, simultaneous processing, fluid intelligence, classification and spatial ability, knowledge of part-whole relationships, and perceptual organization

Matrix Reasoning

Matrix Reasoning

Participants are asked to view a completed puzzle and identify the 3 pieces that were used to create it

• 1. Block Design
• 2. Matrix Reasoning
• 3. Visual Puzzles
• 4. Picture Completion (supplemental)
• 5. Figure Weights (supplemental)

Visual spatial reasoning, nonverbal reasoning, whole part integration, and mental rotation

Participants are asked to complete pictures with missing elements

Visual perception, visual organization, long-term visual memory, concentration, and reasoning

Picture Completion

• 1. Alternate cultural background
• 2. Poor concentration
• 3. Poor perceptual-conceptual integration
• 4. Psychotic depression
• 5. Schizophrenia

• 1. Picture Completion
• 2. Figure Weights

Quantitative and analogical reasoning using pictures

Working memory, which is related to learning and is an essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills; includes the ability to sustain attention, concentration, exert mental control, make mental shifts, and involves short-term memory, initial registration, and mental maintenance

• 1. Transient anxiety
• 2. Brain injury
• 3. Mental retardation
• 4. Impaired concentration
• 5. Antisocial tendencies

Participants are asked to solve arithmetic problems

Reasoning ability, concentration, mental arithmetic, and memory

Participants are asked to repeat a string of digits, first forward and then backward

Attention, short-term memory, and immediate auditory recall

• 1. Mental retardation
• 2. Distractibility
• 3. Anxiety
• 4. Hearing impairment
• 5. Brain damage

• 1. Arithmetic
• 2. Digit Span
• 3. Letter-Number Sequencing (supplemental)

Participants are asked to order numbers and letters that are presented in an unordered sequence

Concentration, attention, tracking, and sequencing ability

• 1. Dyslexia
• 2. Illiteracy
• 3. Inattention
• 4. Anxiety
• 5. Lack of concentration

Letter-Number Sequencing

Letter-Number Sequencing

Processing speed, which involves mental capacity and is related to concentration, hand-eye coordination, visual analysis, and reading development and performance

• 1. Traumatic brain injury
• 2. ADHD
• 3. Epilepsy
• 4. Other neurological issues

• 1. Symbol Search
• 2. Digit Symbol - Coding
• 3. Cancellation (supplemental)

Participants are asked to respond "yes" or "no" regarding whether certain symbols are included in an array

Processing speed, visual short-term memory, planning, and perceptual organization

• 1. Learning disability
• 2. Distractibility
• 3. Anxiety
• 4. Visual-perceptual problems

Participants are asked to mark symbols with different symbols using a key

Visual-motor coordination, speed of mental operations, psychomotor speed, and short-term memory

Digit Symbol - Coding

Participants are asked to draw a line through a presented sequence of objects

Cancellation

Cancellation

It is high

The WAIS-IV has higher reliability coefficients than the WAIS-III did

Below 40 and above 160

The Stanford-Binet

2003

Between the ages of 6 years and 16 years, 11 months

• 1. Picture Concepts
• 2. Picture Completion
• 3. Word Reasoning
• 4. Similarities

• 1. Cancellation
• 2. Arithmetic
• 3. Coding

• 1. Block Design
• 2. Matrix Reasoning
• 3. Picture Concepts

• 1. Comprehension
• 2. Symbol Search
• 3. Coding

1967

Adult scales, WAIS

2002

2012

Ages 2 years, 6 months to 7 years three months

• 1. Ages 2 years, 6 months to 3 years, 11 months
• 2. Age 4 to 7 years, 3 months

The younger age range take fewer subtests designed to measure verbal comprehension and perceptual organization abilities while the older take more subtests to measure the same abilities and processing speed

General Language Composite (GLC); Processing Speed Quotient (PSQ)

WISC-IV

• 1. Consider the examinee's FSIQ
• 2. Then, the Index and subtest scores
• 3. Followed by intrasubtest variability and qualitative analysis

Subtest variability; to gain information about cognitive strengths and weaknesses

7; 9

False positives

Comparing each subtest score to the mean full-scale, verbal, or performance subtest score and then the differences to the values in the Technical Manual. This alsoo provides information on strengths and weaknesses

Screening

Attention deficits or deliberate faking

Variability within a subtest

Intellectual and personality functioning

The Wechsler scales were not developed or validated for this purpose

• 1. Vocabulary
• 2. Digit Span
• 3. Information

• 1. Picture Completion
• 2. Symbol Search
• 3. Cancellation

• 1. Picture Completion
• 2. Vocabulary
• 3. Information
• 4. Comprehension

• 1. Matrix Reasoning
• 2. Arithmetic
• 3. Coding

Higher VCI and PRI; lower WMI and PSI

• 1. Vocabulary
• 2. Matrix Reasoning
• 3. Information

• 1. Visual Puzzles
• 2. Figure Weights
• 3. Coding

• 1. Matrix Reasoning
• 2. Visual Puzzles
• 3. Block Design

• 1. Comprehension
• 2. Symbol Search
• 3. Coding

• 1. Information
• 2. Vocabulary
• 3. Block Design

• 1. Symbol Search
• 2. Cancellation
• 3. Coding

• 1. Vocabulary
• 2. Similarities
• 3. Information

• 1. Block Design
• 2. Visual Puzzles
• 3. Picture Completion

• 1. Cancellation
• 2. Letter-Number Sequencing

• 1. Vocabulary
• 2. Information
• 3. Picture Completion

• 1. Cancellation
• 2. Matrix Reasoning
• 3. Symbol Search

• 1. Symbol Search
• 2. Cancellation
• 3. Picture Completion

• 1. Vocabulary
• 2. Matrix Reasoning
• 3. Block Design
• 4. Figure Weights
• 5. Arithmetic

• 1. Symbol Search
• 2. Picture Completion
• 3. Similarities
• 4. Comprehension

• 1. Visual Puzzles
• 2. Figure Weights
• 3. Arithmetic

• 1. Symbol Search
• 2. Picture Completion
• 3. Figure Weights

• 1. Coding
• 2. Comprehension
• 3. Arithmetic
• 4. Vocabulary

• 1. Matrix Reasoning
• 2. Visual Puzzles
• 3. Block Design

• 1. Comprehension
• 2. Symbol Search
• 3. Coding

• 1. Information
• 2. Vocabulary
• 3. Block Design

• 1. Symbol Search
• 2. Cancellation
• 3. Coding

• 1. Vocabulary
• 2. Comprehension
• 3. Block Design

• 1. Information
• 2. Symbol Search
• 3. Coding

They generally obtain lower scores on the verbal subtests, with Digit Span generally being the lowest; on performance subtests, they do about as well as others on Object Assembly and Block Design, have some difficulty on Picture Completion, Picture Arrangement, and Coding and score the lowest on Picture Arrangement

Higher verbal than performance scores, with verbal score being in the normal range; higher VCI than PRI

You should likely supplement the test with another test of non-verbal intelligence, such as the Raven Progressive Matrices because the WAIS has been deemed to be culturally biased (minority groups generally perform more poorly than Caucasians)

Both cultural and linguistic factors are likely to affect performance

They share the same normative sample

• 1. Luria's neuropsychological model
• 2. Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of cognitive abilities

The brain's basic functions are represented by 3 blocks

It is responsible for attention and arousal

It is responsible for the use of one’s senses to analyze, code, and store information

The application of executive functions for formulating plans and programming behavior

Cognitive ability

Verbal instructions and responses were minimized

Ages 3 through 18

• 1. Simultaneous (Gv)
• 2. Sequential (Gsm)
• 3. Planning (Gf)
• 4. Learning (Gf)
• 5. Knowledge (Gc)

Verbal (crystallized) and nonverbal (fluid) ability

Ages 4 through 90

It is a multilevel measure that assesses learning ability in school children

Children in grades K - 12

• 1. Verbal
• 2. Quantitative
• 3. Total

Language

The cognitive abilities of children from diverse backgrounds to help practitioners distinguish between children with different conditions, such as learning disability and ADHD and to design interventions to improve learning.

Ages 5 through 17 years, 11 months

It provides a quick estimate of cognitive ability; it assists in the quick identification of children at risk for education failure or those who my need additional testing

Children ages 2 years through 7 years, 11 months whose IQs range from 10 to 170+

• 1. Verbal standard score
• 2. Performance standard score
• 3. Total Standard Score (TSS; combination of Verbal and Performance scores)

It is a brief individual screening test of crystallized verbal intelligence

Ages 4-65 with IQs ranging from 36 to 164

Individuals who are visually impaired or blind

10-20 minutes

It is used as a complement to educational evaluations (in schools, clinics, and industry) targeting learning ability or achievement

• 1. Information
• 2. Comprehension
• 3. Quantitative
• 4. Similarities and Differences
• 5. Vocabulary
• 6. Auditory Memory

It is an individually administered battery of cognitive and achievement tests

• Children ages 2 years, 6 months to 17 years, 11 months, with the following divisions:
• 1. Lower preschool (2 years, 6 months through 3 years, 5 months)
• 2. Upper preschool (3 years, 6 months through 5 years, 11 months)
• 3. School-Age (6 years to 17 years, 11 months)

Specific abilities; strengths; weaknesses

20 (e.g., nonverbal reasoning, spatial ability, verbal ability, short-term memory, speed of information processing)

General Conceptual Ability (GAC), defined as "the general ability of an individual to perform complex mental processing that involves conceptualization and transformation of information"

It yields information for ability-achievement discrepancy analysis

Career and personnel assessment in organizational settings for the purpose of hiring, training, and career development

Individuals from 7th grade to adulthood

• 1. Verbal Reasoning
• 2. Numerical Ability
• 3. Abstract Reasoning
• 4. Mechanical Reasoning
• 5. Space Relations
• 6. Spelling
• 7. Language Usage
• 8. Perceptual Speed and Accuracy

Cattell-Horn-Carroll three-stratum theory

• 1. Tests of Achievement (WJ III)
• 2. Tests of Cognitive Abilities (WJ III COG)

Scholastic aptitude and oral language

General intellectual ability (g) and specific cognitive abilities

Ages 2 to 90+

Ability/achievement discrepancies, which is the most commonly used method of evaluating an individual's eligibility for special programs

They measure motor, social, perceptual, sensory, and cognitive skills (once language begins after about 18 months) and are typically used in infancy and early childhood to test intelligence

Empirically-derived standardized measures of infant and early childhood development in the areas of motor, adaptive, language, and personal-social functions

Ages 4 weeks through 6 years

Observations of the child's activities plus information given by the mother or caretaker; this information is then compared to established norms

As a part of an examination for suspected neurological or organic disorders

It is used to identify developmental delays and plan intervention strategies

Five

Children ages 1 to 42 months

Infant development; it provides valuable information about patterns of early development

Data on children with high-incidence clinical diagnoses (e.g., Down syndrome, prematurity, prenatal drug exposure); norms were also updated based on the 2000 US census

• 1. Social-emotional scale
• 2. Adaptive behavior scale
• 3. Cognitive scale
• 4. Language scale
• 5. Motor scale
• 6. Behavior rating scale (optional; assesses behavior during testing and is used in interpretation of the cognitive and language scales)

It is used to screen for developmental delays

Children from birth to six years old

If a child fails an item that 90% of children pass at a younger age

It is often used in medical settings, by pediatricians or other medical practitioners. It can be administered by paraprofessionals with a few hours of training

Through direct observation of a child's performance

• 1. Personal-social
• 2. Language
• 3. Fine motor adaptive
• 4. Gross motor

To identify mental retardation or other cognitive impairment in infants

Infants 3-12 months of age

The amount of time an infant looks at pictures of new versus familiar faces

An infant's selective attention to novel stimuli, presumed to reflect an ability to abstract and retain information

Information processing

Adaptive behavior

• 1. Subaverage intelligence
• 2. Significantly below average social adaptation

Autism

To assess an individual's personal and social sufficiency, such as the person's capacity to care for him or herself; it can be used to assist in developing education and treatment plans

Individuals from birth to age 90 with mental retardation, autism spectrum disorders, brain injury, ADHD, and dementia

It yields an Adaptive Behavior Composite score and scores for the adaptive functioning domains of communication, daily living skills, socialization, and motor skills; there is also an optional Maladaptive Behavior Index

The American Association of Mental Deficiency (AAMD)

Children ages 3 and older

It is based on observations of the individual's social, personal hygiene, language, and maladaptive behaviors

To assist in evaluating individuals for mental retardation, autism, and/or behavior disorders

• 1. Nine behavior domains that evaluate key behaviors to personal responsibility and independent living
• 2. Four sections for social adaptations and maladaptive behavior

Children ages 3 to 18

System of Multicultural Pluralistic Assessment (SOMPA)

It was designed as a more sensitive measure of adaptive behavior for racial minority children

English and Spanish

It consists of 242 interview questions, with a parent of caregiver providing the answers

• 1. Family
• 2. Community
• 3. Peer relations
• 4. Non-academic school roles
• 5. Earner/consumer
• 6. Self-maintenance

It measures adaptive behavior and related skills

0-89 years

It utilizes a behavior rating format using information provided by parents, teachers, significant others, care providers, supervisors, and/or the individual being assessed

• 1. Conceptual
• 2. Social
• 3. Practical

Self-direction, communication, and functional academics skill areas

Social and leisure skill areas

Self-care, home living, community use, health and safety, and work skills

It is required for children ages 0-5 and supplemental for ages 5-89

It is designed for evaluation, program planning, selection, placement, and individual service needs

It is individually administered as a structured interview or checklist assessment

Infancy to age 80

Adaptive functioning and functional independence across home, school, community, and employment settings

• 1. Adaptive Behavior Full Scale Score - the rating is determined by the extent to which the individual performs a task completely and independently
• 2. Problem Behavior Scale - rated based on the frequency and severity of each behavior

A scale derived by information from the Adaptive Behavior Full Scale Score and the Problem Behavior Scale that reflects the amount of support necessary for an individual to be independent in various areas

Blind

Hispanic

Individuals with expressive speech dysfunctions, motor dysfunctions, or whose primary language is not English

To reduce the culture loading associated with language

Unsuccessful

It provides a nonverbal estimate of intelligence

It consists of a series of 228 cards with four pictures on each. The examiner shows the pictures on a card and gives a stimulus word. The examinee indicates which of the pictures best represents the word given. This can be done verbally or by pointing or nodding the head

Individuals ages 2 1/2 to 90+ years of age who can see the pictures, hear the stimulus word, and communicate a reply

It is a general reasoning test that provides an IQ score

There are 92 cards that contain 3, 4, or 5 pictures and the examinee is asked to indicate which one doesn't fit with others

Children ages 3 years, 6 months through 9 years, 11 months. It is useful for children with sensorimotor disorders (e.g., cerebral palsy), difficulties speaking or reading, limited English proficiency, mental retardation, or brain damage as it does not require fine motor skills or verbal responses

Individuals aged 16 or older who are partially-sighted or blind

• 1. Block Design
• 2. Object Completion
• 3. Pattern Board
• 4. Digit Symbol
• 5. Object Assembly
• 6. Bead Arithmetic

Tactile

WAIS

Children ages 3 to 17 years, 6 months who are deaf of have a hearing or language impairment

12

Verbally of using pantomime

Verbal instruction

Individuals ages 2 through 21 who have language or reading problems or are hearing impaired

The test requires the examinee to match picture response cards to the same pictures on an easel

Fluid

• 1. Visualization
• 2. Reasoning
• 3. Memory
• 4. Attention

Children newly arriving from a non-English speaking country, with autism, or selective mutism

Raymond Cattell

It is a nonverbal test of fluid intelligence

Ages 4 through adult

It has three scales containing two equivalent forms (A and B) and each form consists of four subtests: series, classification, matrices, and conditions

Responses to picture and pattern stimuli testing such nonverbal skills as seriation, matrices, and classification (i.e., an examinee must pick out two odd items in each row of figures for each question)

• 1. Scale 1: Ages 4 to 8 and adults with mental retardation
• 2. Scale 2: Ages 8 to 13 and average adults
• 3. Scale 3: High-school and college students (grades 10 to 16) and high-ability adults

.80s; .70s and .80s

It was originally designed as a nonverbal test of general intelligence, but is currently used more as an assessment of perceptual ability and, at the more advanced levels, of spatial logic

Neuropsychological

The examinee is given a series of designs (matrices) and is asked to indicate from a group of alternatives what the next matrix should be in order to complete the overall set

It is the most commonly used version of the Raven's Progressive Matrices that contains 60 matrices that require the examinee to choose the missing section from 6 alternatives

Individuals ages 6 to 80

A shorter, easier version of the Raven's Progressive Matrices

Ages 5 or 11, individuals with mental or physical impairments, and elderly adults

Adolescents and adults with above-average intelligence

It is relatively independent of the effects of cultural learning and specific education

IQ discrepancies between cultural, ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic groups

Reduced cultural content, nonverbal formats, instructions that are simple and could be pantomimed (allows for testing of non-English speakers, individuals with hearing impairments, those with physical disabilities, or individuals with aphasia)

It is not possible to design them because even nonverbal tests rely on logic, which is itself associated with a cultural mode of perceiving, analyzing, and thinking

No better

Differences in problem-solving approaches, cognitive styles, test-taking interest, motivation, and attitudes toward standardized tests

Broad-based assessment

Mercer and Lewis

To estimate the academic potential of children from diverse backgrounds by considering a number of aspects of his/her experience, including sensorimotor skills, cognitive abilities, and adaptive behavior

Children ages 5 to 11

One part for the child and one for the parents or primary caregiver

• 1. Adaptive Behavior Inventory for Children (ABIC)
• 2. Sociocultural scales
• 3. Health history inventories

• 1. Wechsler Scales (either WISC or WPPSI)
• 2. Bender Gestalt
• 3. A set of physical dexterity tasks; weight by height, visual acuity, and auditory acuity

20 minutes

One hour

Caucasian, Latino, and African-American groups

Estimated Learning Potential Scale

Robert Yerkes

Individual testing is time-consuming and expensive

Armed Forces Qualification Test (AFQT)

Industries, schools, and any other setting that requires testing of a large group of individuals

• 1. Organize questions by content with each area separately time-tested
• 2. Combine various content questions and organize the questions in order of increasing difficulty

It is used to assess students' reasoning skills and strengths and weaknesses in performing a variety of reasoning tasks

• 1. Verbal comprehension
• 2. Verbal reasoning
• 3. Pictorial reasoning
• 4. Figural reasoning
• 5. Quantitative reasoning

Children in kindergarten through grade 12

Patterns and levels of abilities in reasoning in problem-solving

Verbal, quantitative, and nonverbal reasoning abilities, as well as a composite score

It is a 12-minute paper-and-pencil test of cognitive ability for adults consisting of 50 numerical, verbal, and spatial items

It unfairly discriminates against individuals of culturally-diverse groups for various jobs

A 40-minute test that assesses job-related verbal and math skills

Educational institutions and employers

Forms

To evaluate an individual's employability for an entry-level career position

Aptitude

Predictors

Educational achievement

Aptitude

Achievement

Innate ability and environmental factors account for the same amount of variability in both achievement and aptitude tests

While aptitude tests supposedly measure a person’s potential capacity for future learning, achievement tests measure what a person has already learned, or his/her developed capacity

Ability test

Scores on these tests improve minimally (10-20 points) with intensive, short-term coaching

A mean coaching effect of 9 points on the Verbal and 16 on the Math section; similar results were found in a large-scale study by Educational Testing Service  for the SAT and on other admissions tests

Full-time study

15

Larger

The potential or actuality of a pretest assessment’s effect on subjects

Multiple

Similar; identical

Initial ability

Complex

The ability to improve one's test score by recognizing and utilizing cues in the test items, format, or testing situation without necessarily knowing the content or skill that is being measured

• 1. Similar option
• 2. Grammatical cue
• 3. Item giveaway
• 4. Stem option

Multiple-choice tests; multiple choice items contain several components where cues may occur

Stronger

Invalidity

Job selection; standardized

Falsely inflate

60th; 71st

Self-concept

Gifted children tend to process information more efficiently, especially on novel tasks that require insight

They are more aware of their cognitive processes and better at selecting, applying, and evaluating cognitive strategies

A stable characteristic of a person believed to be related to a fear of failure in a situation in which the person is to be evaluated

Lower; decreased

Nonstressful and highly structured

An APA publication that covers the construction, publication, dissemination, interpretation, and use of standardized tests; it includes standardized personnel selection, school admissions, and achievement tests

Buros' guide to English-language psychological, educational, and vocational tests including critical reviews of tests, information on reliability and validity, and references to other reviews of the tests

Buros' guide of references to most tests published in English-speaking countries and cross-indexes to reviews of the tests found in the Mental Measurements Yearbook

• 1. Strong leadership, active and energetic principals
• 2. An orderly and structured atmosphere
• 3. Teachers participating in decision-making
• 4. Educational staff having high expectations children will learn
• 5. An emphasis on academics
• 6. Frequent monitoring of students' performance

More effective

Even though large schools tended to offer more activities, students in small schools were more likely to participate in school-sponsored activities

Large schools, especially large high schools

Large

The optimal size for a high school is between 601 and 900 students; achievement gains were lowest for students in schools over 2100 students and nearly as low for students enrolled in schools under 300

• 1. Allows students to be well known, challenged, and encouraged by adults who care
• 2. Reduces the isolation that can seed alienation and violence
• 3. Reduces the achievement gap for poorer students or children of color
• 4. Encourages teachers to use intelligence and experience to help students succeed

• 1. Improved school safety and security
• 2. Reduced negative effects of poverty
• 3. Students in general view subjects and school more positively
• 4. Better coordination among school staff

• 1. Higher costs of education per student
• 2. Initially fewer electives
• 3. Fewer special education specialists

Maria Montessori, the first female Italian physician, developed this method from her work with children with emotional disturbances and mental retardation

Cognitive development is the product of interaction between the individual and the environment and motor, sensory, and language development are viewed as prerequisites to academic learning

That children have a drive for self-development that can be aided by an orderly, but stimulating environment

• 1. Individual and small group academic and social skills instruction
• 2. Multi-age classrooms
• 3. Student mentors in collaborative environments
• 4. Student-chosen work in long time blocks
• 5. Educational materials
• 6. Absence of grades and tests

5000

Children will be naturally motivated to interact with objects that are self-chosen in a constructive way

Children are free to do what they want, within limits, and are encouraged to exercise self-discipline; teacher observes the children and assists them when they truly need help

Age 4

Demonstrations of the use of teaching materials to small groups of children

• 1. It doesn't provide enough opportunity for small-group interaction
• 2. It doesn't provide enough cooperative opportunities
• 3. Children are limited in terms of interaction with peers and teachers

• 1. The need for quality teacher-student relationships
• 2. Teacher relational variables

• 1. Supportive relationships
• 2. Safe, trusting learning environments to learn with and from each other
• 3. Perceived ownership and control over the learning proces

• 1. Considering individual and cultural differences
• 2. Encouraging thinking
• 3. Learner-centered beliefs

It is a teaching approach based on the APA's learner-centered principles and combines a focus on individual learners and a focus on learning

To define what is presently known about learning and learners; they reflect the psychological principles with the greatest positive effect on learning and learnings

• 1. Cognitive and metacognitive
• 2. Motivational and affective
• 3. Developmental and social
• 4. Individual differences

• It addresses intellectual capacities of learners and how they facilitate the learning process
• 1. Nature of the learning process
• 2. Goals of the learning process
• 3. Construction of knowledge
• 4. Strategic thinking
• 5. Thinking about thinking
• 6. Context

• It addresses the role of motivation, curiosity, and emotion in learning
• 1. Motivational and emotional influences
• 2. Intrinsic motivation
• 3. Effects of motivation on effort

• It addresses the influence of diverse aspects of learner development and the importance of interpersonal interactions in learning and change
• 1. Developmental influences
• 2. Social influences

• It addresses how individual differences influence learning; how students, teachers, and administrators adapt to learning diversity; and how standards and assessment can best support individual differences
• 1. Individual differences in learning
• 2. Learning and diversity
• 3. Standards and assessment

• 1. Empathy
• 2. Positive relationships
• 3. Warmth
• 4. Nondirectivity
• 5. Encouraging thinking and learning

Student participation, satisfaction, drop-out prevention, critical thinking, self-esteem, positive motivation, math and verbal achievement, grades, IQ, social connection, improved attendance and perceived achievement, reduction in disruptive behaviors

Teacher-centered; learner-centered approach

School psychology/counseling

Assessment; treatment

Therapy

School psychologists

• 1. Mental health model
• 2. Behavioral model
• 3. Adlerian model

The consultant interacts with consultee (parents, teachers, or principal) in order to help that person resolved a problem involving a child

The consultant focuses directly on the presenting problem of the consultee (e.g., teacher's style of teaching)

Consultants educate parents and teachers, applying the assumptions and content of Adlerian theory, emphasizing preventative interventions

Research suggests that psychological interventions aimed directly at students (e.g., teaching social skills, assertiveness programs to resist substance use)have limited value; therefore, keeping the focus on others is viewed as a more efficient use of the consultant's time since the gains in consultee insight can be generalized to other situations

A type of educational assessment that is closely linked to a particular curriculum

Feedback about the instruction itself, so that necessary changes can be made to better fit the student's ability and current knowledge; it is not designed to bring about changes in the curriculum itself, though; rather, its purpose is to help identify progress in terms of the existing curriculum and any change in instruction (e.g., pace, sequencing of topics) that would aid the student's progress in completing the curriculum

By the federal government in 1965

The most widespread and well-known early intervention program for children of poverty

A year of preschool education, nutritional and medical services, and parent involvement in education and program administration

A year of Head Start had only marginal effects on intelligence and school achievement; this student threatened the existence of the program, but it has been criticized as being flawed

Among low income children in early elementary school, increases in IQ scores and school achievement have been found, but score decline is observed thereafter

• 1. Placement in special education classes
• 2. Pride in academic achievement
• 3. Vocational aspirations

Graduate high school; engage in delinquent behavior

A method in which children are taught partially or entirely in their native language and then transitioned to English-only instruction at some point during the elementary school grades

A method in which children are taught using texts and instructions overwhelmingly, if not entirely, English-only

5 to 8; 6

Fourth

Quality

Native language reading proficiency

It does not interfere with performance