chapter 1 biol

the study of the structure of the human body +these structures of the human body make the functions of physiology possible

the study of the function of the human body

subatomic particles,atom,molecule,macromolecule,organelle,cell,tissue,organ,organ system,organism

electrons, protons, and neutrons

smallest particle of a chemical element retaining its properties; made up of nucleus(protons and neutrons) and electrons

two or more atoms joined by chemical bonds

very large molecule(protein)

composed of macromolecules & smaller molecules,carries out specific activities in cells

basic unit of structure and function of human body

layer or mass of cells with specific function

two or more tissues with a specialized function

group of organs that function closely together

made up of interacting organ systems

movement,responsiveness,growth,reproduction,respiration,digestion,absorption,circulation,assimilation,excretion,metabolism

change in position;motion

reaction to change

increase in body size

production of new organisms and new cells

obtaining oxygenO2 and removing carbon dioxideCO2 releasing energy from foods

breakdown of food substances into simplar forms

passage of substances through membranes and into body fluids

movement of substances in body fluids

changing of absorbed substances into chemically different forms

removal of wastes produced by metabolic reactions

all of the chemical reactions in cells; makes possible all of the above

unicellular and depend on conditions in external environment for life activities

10 trillion human cells in the internal environment of the human body

maintains the stable environment through homeostatic control mechanisms

provides info about a condition in the internal environment (thermoreceptors in skin and hypothalamus)

tells what the condition should be (set point)(hypothalamus)

elicits response that changes the condition in the internal enviroment(skin,sweat glands & blood vessels)

deviation from the set point is corrected and correction reduces the action of effectors(most common feedback)

physiological values that vary within a healthy person and between healthy people falling within normal range

increases and accelerates actions of the body-positive feedback mechanisms are shortlived-controls only infrequent events that do not require continuous adjustments example bloodclotting&childbirth

prevents sudden,severe changes in the body,causes opposite of bodily disruption to occur ie the neg-brings a condition of the internal environment back to set point-most common type of feedback loop-examples blood pressure,body temp,glucose regulation

used by anatomists to describe body regions,relative positions&directions,and body sections, as well as major body cavities and their subdivisions

reference position of the human body for anatomical terminology

• supine-person lying face up
• prone-person face down

head

skull

face

forehead

eye

ear

nose

mouth

cheek

chin

neck

chest

breast

armpit

arm

elbow

forearm

wrist

hand

palm of hand

fingers and toes

thumb

shoulder

back

lower back

between thorax and pelvis

navel

groin

reproductive organs

buttocks

thigh

front of knee

back of knee

leg

calf of leg

ankel

foot

heal of foot

sole of foot

fingers and toes

big toe

above or closer to head

below or towards feet

towards the front

towards the back

closer to the midline

farther from the midline

paired one on each side

on the same side

structures on the opposite sides

closer to the trunk

farther from the trunk

nearer to the surface

further from the surface

to observe relative locations and arrangements of the internal organs -sectioning the body along various planes

divides the body into left and right portions

passes along the midline, divides the body into equal right and left portions

passes lateral to the midline

divides the body into superior and inferior portions

divides the body into anterior and posterior portions

cut across structure(perpendicular to long axis)

angular cut at <90 angle across long axis

lengthwise cut along long axis

head,neck,trunk

upper and lower limbs

axial portion

enclosed in skull; contains brain

enclosed by vertebral column; contains spinal cord

enclosed in ribcage contains lungs-mediastinum(heart,esophagus,trachea*separated by diaphragm from abdominopelvic cavity

• abdominal cavity-stomach,gallbladder,liver,spleen,small and large intestines
• pelvic cavity-pelvic bones terminal end of large intestine,urinary bladder,and internal reproductive organs

cranial cavity-oral cavity-nasal-sinuses-orbital cavities-middle ear cavities

contains brain

contains teeth and tongue

contains nasal conchae(scoll-like bones) covered by mucous membrane connected to sinus membrane

fronal and sphenoidal sinuses

contains eyes and associated muscles and nerves

contain middle ear bones

• like the walls of thoracic and abdominal cavities and fold BACK TO COVER ORGANS with these cavities-they secret slippery serous fluid that separates
• parietal layer-lines cavity wall
• potential cavity
• visceral layer-covers organ

surrounds lungs-viseral pleura-pleural cavity-parietal pleura

surrounds the heart-viseral pericardium-pericardial cavity-pariatal pericardium-fibrous pericardium

surrounds all organs in abdominopelvic cavity-viseral peritoneum-peritoneal cavity-perietal peritoneum

skin and assesory organs(hair,nails,skin glands

• skeletal system-bones carterlage ligaments,produces bloods cells,including cells of the immune system
• muscular system-maintain posture, circulate blood, support movement

• nervious system:brain,spinal cord,nerves,sense organs,nerve cells generate and transmit eletrochemical signals(action potentials)
• endocrine system:endocrine glands scattered thruout the body secrete chemical signals(hormones carried out by blood)

• cardiovascular-heart,blood vessels,bloos,contains cells of immune system
• lympatic system-lymphatic vessels,lymph,lymph nodes,spleen,thymus(in juveniles)contains cells of the immune system

• digestive;ingestion,digestion,absorption of food,elimination of feces
• respiratory system;gas exchange in blood and air o2 absorbed and co2 released
• urinary system;removal of waste from blood,maintenance of water and electrolyte balence

• male-produces male sex cells(sperm) and transfers them to female reproductive system
• female-produces sex cells(eggs) receives male sex cells, supports development of fertilized egg into newborn

the process of becoming mature and then old,occurs microscopic to whole body levels,body reaches limited number of predetermined cell divisions

loss of hair color*reduced production of pigment-wrinling and stiffening of skin*reduced production of connective tissue proteins(collagen and elastin)-slowed metabolism (sensitivity to cold&fatigue)due to reduced secretion from thyroid-weakened immune system-reduced production of immune cells

• never get diseases(heart diesease or cancer)20%
• get these diseases much older 40%
• survive these diseases 40%

the study of composition of substances and how they change

chemistry of living organisms

• anything that has mass and takes up space; composed of elements
• -exists as solid (constant shape & volume),liquid(constant volume),or gas

fundamental substance, can not be broken down or transformed by chemical means; 94 occur in nature

substance made up of several chemically combined elements

• bulk elements 99.9% o,c,h,n& others
• trace elements(<0.1%-I,Fe,& others
• ultra trace elements toxic in large amounts example as

atoms combine  with other atoms of the same elemet or other elements

• protons 1 or more +1 eletrical charge;1 atomic mass unit(amu)
• neutrons none or more electrically neutral; 1 atomic mass unit(amu)

one or more;-1 electrical chanrge; 1/2,000 (negligible)

# of protons(determines atomic number)=# of electrons; unique to each element(3Li)

(amu) number of protons+# of neutrons(7Li)

mass number -atomic number

atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons and therefore,mass numbers;have identical chemical properties;example: 126c,136c

nucleus decays spontaneously,giving off particles and energy(atomic radiation) 146c*147n

• (alpha)-42He2+; travel slowly and can not easily penetrate matter
• (beta)-e-;travel faster and penetrate more deeply
• (gamma)high energy photon(similar to x-ray);most pentrating

average mass number that reflects proportions of different isotopes;usually close to mass number of most common elelment

(element or compound)=sum of atomic weights of molecules atoms

quality of weight(g) equals to atomic weight (amu) of element or molecular weight(amu) of molecule;contains 6*1023 atoms/molecules-1 mol of H weights 1.01g; 1 mol of C weights 12.01g

• two or more atoms joined by chemical bonds
• ex:molecules of elements of H2,O2,N2
• ex:molecules of compounds(h20,C6H12O6,CH4,C2H5OH)

describes types and numbers of atoms in a molecule

result from interactions of elements

• 1st shell(closest to nucleus) 2 electrons
• 2nd shell 8 electrons
• 3rd shell 8 electrons(when outermost
• *electrons closest to nucleus filled 1st

• leaves the outermost shell completely filled with electrons by gaining, loosing, or sharing electrons
• *shells with filled outer shells (he) are cemically inactive

atoms that gain or loose electrons become electronically charged

atoms with one or two electrons in their outer shell tend to loose them to complete their outer shell,becoming positively charged (na+)

atoms with 7 electrons tend to gain an electron to complete their outer shell becoming neg charged anions(cl-)

cations and ions attract causing ionic compounds held by ionic bonds naci solid crystles at room temp,(does not esists as molecules)molecular formula indicates the relative amounts of each element

form between two atoms sharing 1-3 pairs of electrons to complete their outer shell

• each pair of shared electrons
• *each element form a specific number of covalent bonds, based on the number of electrons in their outer shell

electron pairs shared equally(molecule of elements CH4)

electron pairs shared unequally (h2o)

molecules held together by polar covalent bonds are polar.having parcial positive and neg charges at different ends and can form weak hydrogen bonds

form or break between atoms,ions, or molecules

 a=b=ab

ab=a+b

ab+cd=ad+cb

a+b=ab

• a+b=ab
• direction depends on relative concentrations of reactants and products and the amount of energy available

substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without being consumed;does not affect direction

mixture of two or more substances,with one substance(solvent) present in greater quality than others(s) (solute(s)

h20 with the polar h20molecule being the solvent

polar molecules and ions form hydrogen bonds with h20 molecules

substances non-polar molecules repelled by h20 molecules as they form hydrogen bonds with each other

aquenous solution of large molecules(proteins)which remain in suspension indefinitely;example jell-o

mixture of large particles(sand) with h20,which eventually settle out of solution due to gravity

IONIC AND MANY POLAR COMPOUNDS PLACED IN WATER DISSOCIATE INTO INDIVIDUAL IONS OR MOLECULES DUE TO ATTRACTION to particle  postive AND  negative charges of h2o molecules nacl=na+ cl-

contains electrically charged particles(ions)=conducts electric current;substances that release ions in h20 are called electrolytes

release h+ hcl=h+ +cl-

• release ions that combine with h+ naoh=na+ + oh-
• h+ + oh- =h20

• react with acids to neutralize them forming h20 and salts
• hcI+naoh=h20+nacl

• indicates h+ consentration ph=-log10[H+(mol/]
• body melabolic 7.35-7.45

chemicals (carbonic acid/bicarbonate ion) that resist pH changes H2O3=HCO3-+H+

inorganic,h20,O2,co2,inorganic salts,organic compounds (w/t h and c) carbs,lipids,proteins nucleic acids

2/3 of body weight major compoinent of body fluids,universal solvent most metabolic reactions occure in solution,transport medium for cells,substances,and heat

enters internal enviroment thru respiratory organs ,carried by bloods to tissues-used by cellular organelles(mitrohondria) to release energy from nutrient molecules

produced as waste product during energy release from nutrient molecules,carried by blood from tissues; leaves internal enviroment thru respiratory organs

abundant in body fluids; sources of nessary ions (na+,cl-,k+,ca+2,po4-3)

• formula CnH2nOn water soluble
• sugars monosaccharides,disaccharides,polysaccharides

5-carbon:ribose deoxyribose,6 carbon:glucose frutose

• consists of 2 6 carbon units
• sucrose(table sugar)
• lactose(milk sugar)

• consists/are polymers of multiple glucose units (monomers) 
• plants:cellulose,starch
• animals:glycogen

• liver converts frutose and galactose into glucose used by cells for energy
• nerve cells require for survival
• cells use as starting materials for synthesizing 5carbon sugars ribose and deoxyribose-part of nucleic acid
• excess glucose is stored as glycogen in liver and muscles(limited) and as fat

• fats/triglycerides-glycerol connected to 3 fatty acids
• saturated fats 
• unstaturated fats
• phospolipds
• steroids

butter fatty acids no double bond solid at room temp increase risk of artherosclerosis

• fatty acid double bonds
• unstaturated with double bonds veggie oils increse risk of artherosis less than sat. fats
• tran unstaurated(margerine) increase more than saturated

• glycerol connected to 2 water insoluble(hydrophobic)fatty acids and water soluable (hydrophilic) phosphate group
• phospholipid bilayers form cell membranes

• 4 fused carbon rings 
• cholesterol-part of membranes precursor of several hormones(chemical messengers of the endocrine system)

breaks down fatty acids in 2 carbon segments converting into acetyl coenzyme a,which is used by cells to generate energy(part of pathway starting glucose)

can be converted to acetyl CoA or glucose

excess glycerol and fatty acids plus glucose and amino acids are stored as fat main form of energy in the body makes twice as energy as a gram or protein or carb

can not be synthesized by the liver(unlike most fatty acids)must be provided in diet(corn oil)

• most diverse group of organic compounds in human body 200,000 are polymers of multiple amino acids(monomers) made up of centeral c covalently bond to amino group(n-nh2),carboxal group(-COOH),H atom,R group-distinguishes 20 amino acids
• joined by covalent peptid bonds between amino group & carboxl group into polypeptides

function enzymes(catalize metabolic reaction),structural materials(collagen,elastin) chemical messager(hormones),cell surface receptors(in combo wiith carb(glycoproteins)immune system(anti-bodies),allow muscle contraction(myosin&actin)

meats fish poultry milk cheese eggs nuts cerials

• 8 amino(out of 20) that cannot be synthesized by the body,must be provided in diet
• provided by complete proteins(meat)
• many plant proteins are incomplete;combining appropriate plant foods(beans and rice) provides all essential amino acids
• digestive system breaks down proteins to amino acids(hydrolysis) which are absorbed into blood)
• amino acids are used,primarily,to synthesize bodys own protein

primary structure,covalent bonds,secondary structure,tertiary structure,quaternary structure

sequence of amino acids held together by covalent bonds between carboxyl and amino groups; determined by inherited genetic information

a helixes and b pleated sheets held together by hydrogen bonds between carboxyl and amino groups

polypeptide structure resulting from interactions of r groups(hydrophobic interactions,hydrogen and ionic bonds,and covalent disulfide brides between cysteines)

aggregation of multiple polypedtide subunits held together by hydrogen & ionic bonds and hydrophobic interactions

phanged in ph salt concentration and temp can cause loss of 3d shape and bio function it can be reversable or irreversable

deoxyribonucletic acid dna and ribonucleic acid rna consist of multiple nucleotides(monomers)

• stores genetic info about primary structure of proteins(genes)
• double helix  two poly nucleo tides held by hydrogen bonds between paired bases

• translates genetic information into polypeptide sequences dna-rna-protein
• single poly nucleotide

• nitrogenous bases 1 or 2 ring distinguish 4 dna and 4 rna nucleotides
• 5carbon sugars ribose and deoxyribose
• phosphate group

adjacient nucleotides joined by convalent bonds between sugars and phosphate groups

• only certain base pairs can form stable hydrogen bonds within dna double helix or between mrna and dna a-t(a-u) and gc
• complementary dna strands allow semi con servative reproduction

sum total of chem reactions in the cell 

• controls rate of reaction in metabolism and is a cataytic protein
• 37cbiochem reactions r slow so enzymes are used to increase rate by lowering activation energy that is required to ender unstable transition state
• they dont change direction of reaction and are specific to a specific reaction
• the rate of enzyme-catalizzed increases with reactants until saturated

• consumes energy to build complex molecules
• involving dehydration

releases energy(exergonic) by breaking down complex molecules to simple.*hydrolysis

• substrate is a reactant that binds to active site of enzzyme starting the reaction causing it to change shape(induced fit),formig enzyme-substrate complex reacttant are then converted to products and released from the active site
• the specificity is from fit between active site and substrate
• the enzyme 3d shape determines configuration of active site

37c and 7.4 for most human enzymes) favor the most active shape of enzyme molecule; enzyme are inactivated by t and ph out side those ranges

non-protein molecules required for catalytic activity of many enzymes*coenzymes organic cofactor which are most vitamins or coenzyme precursers; can not be synthesized at all or in sufficient amounts by human body and must come from diet

chemicals that selectively inhibit action of specific enzymes

bind to enzyme by weak bonds(most inhibitors)

bind to enzyme with covalent bonds(cyanide,DDT,many antibiotics)

bind to site of other enzymes blocking substrate from entering

bind to another portion of enzyme, causing it to change shape and reduce effectiveness of active site

a sequence of biochemical reactions,beginning with a specific reactant and ending with a certain product,each catalyzed by a specific enzyme

Hundreds of different enzymes are present in every cell they derive often from names of their substrates

• determines metabolic pathway that cataizes one of its steps
• often 1st step
• rate of pathway no longer increases once rate limiting enzyme becomes saturated
• often inhibited by end product

• capacity to do work
• kinetic energy-energy of(molecular)motion
• potential energy-stored energy(of chem bonds)

• chemical work-powering anabolic reactions
• transport work=activate of substrates across cell membrane
• mechanical work-beating of cilia&flagella,contraction of muscle cells
• ATP(adenosine triphosphate)-adenine-ribose-3 phoshate groups bonds between phosphate groups can be broken by hydrolysis,releasing energy in the form that a cell can use,main energy carrier of cell-used to make rna.ATP powers cellular work by phosphorylation(attachment of phosphorylation group) to reactants,transport,and motor proteins,ATP is regenerated by phosphorylation of ADP using energy from catabolic pathways(cellular respiration)