Biology 2

salivary amylase is secreted which digests starch to maltose for chemical digestion. Also chewing occurs which is a mechanical form of digestion.

peristalsis is the contraction of smooth muscles lining the esophagus and it leads to pushing the food bolus down the esophagus to the stomach by way of the cardiac sphincter

• HCl converts pepsinogen into pepsin, the active form of the enzyme which breaks down proteins.
• After digestion in the stomach, the material eaten is called chyme.

gastric glands in the stomach secrete HCl which make it very acidic. the stomach is protected from this acid by the mucosal stomach lining. if there is a hole in the lining, that is how an ulcer can occur.

chyme moves into the small intestine by way of the pyloric sphincter. Digestion and absorption happen in the small intestine. The 3 sections of the small intestine are the duodenum, jejunum, and the ileum.The small intestine produces lipase (lipid digestion), aminopeptidases (for polypeptide digestion), and disaccharidases (for digestion of maltose, lactose, and sucrose). The small intestine also secretes secretin which stimulates the release of sodium bicarbonate from the pancreas. The small intestine is lined with villi (capillaries and lacteals) which increase the surface area for absorption of nutrients into the blood.

Increase the surface area to allow for greater absorption

produced in the small intestine, lipase is responsible for the digestion of lipids.

Produced in the small intestine, aminopeptidase aids in the digestion of polypeptides.

Produced in the small intestine, disacharidase is responsible for the digestion of maltose, lactose, and sucrose

secretin is released by the small intestine and stimulates the pancreas to release sodium bicarbonate, which can neutralize the acidic chyme entering the duodenum from the stomach

• 1. storage of nutrients
• 2. DETOXIFICATION of certain chemicals from the blood stream
• 3. forms UREA
• 4. makes glycogen into glucose or vice versa depending on the body's needs
• 5. production of BILE (which is stored in the gallbladder and secreted in the small intestine)

formed by the liver and is used by the kidneys to help make the urine not have too much water in it so the body can prevent dehydration

Bile is released in the small intestine and is responsible for the emulsification of fats.

• Reabsorption of water
• E. Coli also inhabit the large intestine and produce vitamin K as well as help with food digestion

Secretes pancreatic enzymes into the small intestine like amylase (starch), trypsin and chymotrypsin (protein), pancreatic lipase (lipids) and sodium bicarbonate (to balance the overly acidic pH of the chyme in the small intestine)

Amylase is an enzyme that breaks down starch into sugar. It is found in the saliva and also secreted by the pancreas into the small intestine.

Secreted by the pancreas into the small intestine, trypsin breaks apart proteins to aid in digestion

Chymotrypsin is a protease that is capable of breaking down proteins once it is activated by trypsin. It is secreted by the pancreas into the small intestine.

Maltose

It originates in the medulla oblangata and travels down the PHRENIC nerve until it reaches the DIAPHRAGM

organ that makes sound in the neck, manipulates pitch and volume, etc.

the part of the neck (throat) that is immediately behind the nose and mouth

Tube through which air passes

and they are the first part of the branching airway that no longer contain cartilage

the membrane of the alveoli (found in the lungs) is the site for gas exchange. the alveoli are elastic and are able to stretch to fill with air when air is breathed in.

hemoglobin in the blood

• Decreased blood O2 → increased breathing rate
• Increased blood CO2→ increased breathing rate
• Increased H+ conc. → increased breathing rate

The diaphragm contracts to cause the thoracic cavity to expand and allow air to rush in.

The bone marrow

• platelets (clotting)
• RBCs (carry O2)
• WBCs/lymphocytes (immunity)
• plasma (liquid part of blood)

aorta

arteries

Usually it is oxygenated in the arteries unless it is in the pulmonary arteries which means it is traveling away from the heart to go to the lungs to go get oxygenated

Vena Cava, vein, venule

capillaries

capillaries

• 
• Superior and Inferior Vena Cavae→Right Atrium →Right Ventricle →Pulmonary Artery →Lungs→Pulmonary Vein →Left Atrium→Left Ventricle→Aorta→Body

the sinoatrial node is located over the right atrium and it causes the heart muscle to contract in rhythm.

platelets release thromboplastin at the site near where the wound or injury is. Thromboplastin, Ca2+, and vitamin K all work together to create a cascade which results in the secretion and activation of thrombin from the precursor molecule prothrombin. Thrombin then causes fibrinogen to become fibrin, which creates a protein network like a web that traps red blood cells and prevents them from escaping.

protein produced by the body that binds to a foreign antigen

• Helper T cells (activate B cells)
• Cytotoxic T cells (kill infected or precancerous cells directly)
• Suppressor T cells (regulate other immune cells)

• Humoral response- part of immunity regulated by antibodies secretion
• Plasma cells and memory cells: plasma cells produce antibodies, while memory cells are long-lived and allow the body to react quicker to the same foreign antigen if it presents itself again

• active immunity is when you ar eexposed to something and your own body makes antibodies against the pathogen (i.e. a vaccine)
• passive immunity is when you are given antibodies not made by your own body in order to fight off a pathogen such as those acquired from the mother by the fetus or in an artificial transfer of antibodies to a new host

• before an action potential, there is more Na^{+ outside of the cell}
• and more K+ INSIDE of the cell

• sensory neurons = afferent neurons
• motor neurons = efferent neurons
• interneurons = connect sensory and motor neurons

norepinephrine

acetylcholine

ganglia

In compact bone

most bones have both type of bone tissue both hard and spongy. spongy bone is usually on the inside and is porous. compact bone is on the outside and is protective.

• osteoblasts- make bone
• osteoclasts- break down old bone

synovial membrane

ligaments

tendons

origin

insertion

extension; flexion

• Cardiac muscle- heart-involuntary-autonomic nervous system
• Smooth muscle-digestive system-involuntary-autonomic nervous system
• Skeletal muscle-voluntary- somatic nervous system

actin/myosin----- sarcomere------- myofibrils-------fibers-----------bundles-----------muscles

the thick filaments are myosin and the thin filaments are actin which slide past eachother for muscle contraction

A modified endoplasmic reticulum called the sarcoplasmic reticulum and it stores Ca ions and releases them during contraction of the muscle

all or none response because they will be stimulated at a certain threshold.