-
After clotted blood has been spun, what is the clear yellow fluid at the top?
serum
-
once an animal is born, what tissue in the bone marrow is responsible for RBC formation?
myeloid tissue
-
what is hematopoiesis?
formation of all parts of the blood
-
how are dead RBCs removed?
broken down by spleen and lymph nodes
-
what is another name for neutrophils?
polymorphonuclear cells
-
what is contained within the basophilic granules?
histamine and heparin
-
what is the function of histamine?
initiates inflammation and allergic reactions
-
what is the function of heparin?
anticoagulant
-
lymphocytes make up the majority of agranulocytes, but it is the only WBC that does not have _____________?
phagocytic abilities
-
what are the three types of lymphocytes involved in the immune system?
- 1. T lymphocytes
- 2. B lymphocytes
- 3. Natural Killer (NK)
-
what is a natural killer cell?
defense against some cancers and viruses
-
what is the term for a decrease in the number of platelets which results in a clotting issue?
thromobytopenia
-
In the bone marrow, what is responsible for making platelets?
megakaryocytes
-
what is DIC?
disseminated intravascular coagulation
-
what is the result of DIC?
- increases coagulation of the blood
- depletes the clotting factors and platelets
- platelets congregate in one area of the body
- can be fatal
-
what is another name for excess fluid?
lymph
-
what are the four functions of the lymphatic system?
- 1. remove extra fluid
- 2. remove waste from tissues
- 3. filters foreign debris and bacteria from lymph
- 4. transport large proteins and lipids to the blood from the tissues
-
where is lymph fluid located?
interstitial space
-
what is the primary drainage duct for lymph?
thoracic duct
-
that are the three area of the lymph node?
- 1. cortex
- 2. paracortex
- 3. medulla
-
what is contained in the outer cortex?
B lymphocytes
-
what is contained in the paracortex?
T lymphocytes
-
what is function of the medulla for the lymph node?
skeleton
-
what lymph nodes are palpable in a horse?
submandibular lymph nodes
-
what is term for enlarged or swollen lymph nodes?
lymphadenopathy
-
what attaches the spleen to the left kidney?
nephrosplenic ligament
-
what attaches the spleen to the stomach?
gastrosplenic ligament
-
what are the four functions of the spleen?
- 1. store blood
- 2. remove foreign particles from the blood
- 3. remove old RBCs
- 4. produce lymphocytes
-
what are the two types of tissue that comprise the spleen?
-
what is the function of the red pulp tissue in the spleen?
store and remove RBCs
-
what is the function of the white pulp tissue in the spleen?
produce lymphocytes
-
what are the four chambers of the heart?
- 1. right atrium
- 2. left atrium
- 3. right ventricle
- 4. left ventricle
-
what are the two functions of the atria?
- 1. receive and hold blood
- 2. SA node (pacemaker)
-
what is the function of the ventricles?
pump blood away from the heart
-
what are the three layers of the heart?
- 1. epicardium
- 2. myocardium
- 3. endocardium
-
what is the function of the myocardium?
make contractions
-
what is the function of the endocardium?
form the heart valves
-
what holds the fluid between the heart layers?
pericardial sac
-
what does AV stand for?
atrioventricular valve
-
what are the two AV valves?
-
what attaches the AV valves to the heart?
chordae tendinae
-
what controls the blood flow out of the ventricles?
semilunar valves
-
what are the two semilunar valves?
-
what is the name for muscle cells in the heart?
myocytes
-
what connects the myocytes?
intercalated disks
-
what controls changes in the heart rate?
autonomic nervous system
-
where does the electrical activity of the heart originate?
SA node
-
where is the SA node located?
wall of the right atrium
-
where are the nerve impulses from the AV node conducted to?
Bundle of His
-
where are the nerve impulses from the Bundle of His conducted to?
purkinje system
-
what is stroke volume?
the volume of blood ejected by the ventricles in one beat
-
what is cardiac output?
volume of blood ejected by the heart in one minute
-
what is the formula for calculating cardiac output?
stroke volume multiplied by the heart rate
-
what is the normal heart rate for a horse?
24-48 bpm
-
what is the outer layer of blood vessel?
tunica adventitia
-
what is the middle layer of a blood vessel?
tunica media
-
what types of tissue comprise the tunica media?
- smooth muscle
- elastic tissue
-
what is the innermost layer of a blood vessel?
tunica intima
-
arteries carry oxygenated blood with one exception - what is it?
pulmonary artery
-
veins carry deoxygenated blood with one exception - what is it?
pulmonary vein
-
what are the two divisions of the circulatory system?
- 1. pulmonary circulation
- 2. systemic circulation
-
which artery carries deoxygenated blood into the heart?
vena cava
-
what is the function of the alar cartilage?
support for the nares
-
what is the length of the nasal cavity?
nostrils to the nasopharynx
-
what is another name for the turbinate bones?
conchae
-
what covers the conchae?
highly vascularized mucosa
-
what are the three divisions of the conchae?
- 1. dorsal
- 2. middle
- 3. ventral meatuses
-
what is the purpose of the ventral meatus?
widest of the turbinate bones used for nasogastric tubes
-
how many pairs of sinuses in a horse?
7
-
which sinuses are most often involved with disease?
- frontral
- cranial maxillary
- caudal maxillary
-
what is created when the seven pairs of sinuses are combined?
-
what separates the nasopharynx and the oropharynx?
soft palate
-
what is created with the nasopharynx, oropharynx, and the soft palate?
pharynx
-
what lines the nasopharynx?
pseudostratified columnar epithelial cells
-
what lines the oropharynx and the pharynx?
stratified simple squamous epithellium
-
what support the larynx?
hyoid apparatus
-
what does the epiglottis cover?
glottis
-
what is another name for lung tissue?
parenchyma
-
what is covered by the parietal pleura?
- chest wall
- diaphragm
- mediastinum
-
what is covered by the visceral pleura?
lungs
-
what is the most important inspiratory muscle in a horse?
diaphragm
-
what is oxidative metabolism?
oxygen is transported by the blood to the tissues to be used with glucose to create energy
-
what type of teeth do horses have?
hypsodont
-
what is the dentine of the tooth?
mineralized tissue in the tooth
-
what encases the root of a tooth?
cement
-
what is the name that refers to the first premolar tooth on the maxilla?
wolf tooth
-
when do temporary incisors typically erupt?
- I1 - 8 days
- I2 - 8 weeks
- I3 - 8 months
-
when do permanent incisors erput?
- I1 - 2.5 years
- I2 - 3.5 years
- I3 - 4.5 years
-
when do permanent premolars erupt?
- P2 - 2.5 years
- P3 - 3 years
- P4 - 5 years
-
when do permanent molars erupt?
- M1 - 1 year
- M2 - 2 years
- M3 - 3.5 years
-
what is exposed when the enamel infolds on itself on the occlusal surface of the incisor?
cement
-
what is the term for the exposed cement as the horse ages?
cup
-
what use is the cup?
aging the horse
-
when do cups appear on the lower incisors?
- I1 - 6 years
- I2 - 7 years
- I3 - 8 years
-
when do cups appear on the upper incisors?
- I1 - 7 years
- I2 - 8 years
- I3 - 9 years
-
at what age should a horse have all the permanent teeth?
5 years
-
where is the "hook" formed?
upper I3 on the distal side
-
what is the term for the "hook" that appears on the upper I3?
7 year notch
-
at what age does the 7 year notch appear?
7 years
-
at what age does the 7 year notch disappear?
10 years
-
at what age is the Galvayne's groove appear?
10 years
-
at what age is the Galvayne's groove about halfway?
15 years
-
at what age is the Galvayne's groove complete?
20 years
-
at what age does the Galvayne's groove disappear about halfway?
25 years
-
at what age does the Galvayne's groove completely recede?
30 years
-
where does the Galvayne's groove appear?
upper I3
-
at what age do all of the cups disappear?
10 years
-
as the horse ages, what shape does the mouth form?
"parrot" mouth
-
what are "points" on premolars and molars?
sharp projections
-
what is the term for equine dentistry?
floating
-
what happens during floating?
the points are filed down from the premolars and molars
-
what are the four paired salivary glands?
- 1. parotid
- 2. mandibular
- 3. sublingual
- 4. buccal
-
what is another term for swallowing?
deglutination
-
what side of the body is the location for the stomach?
left
-
what is the function of somatotstatin?
decrease acid secretion
-
what is the function of parietal cells?
secrete hydrochloric acid
-
what is the function of zymogen cells?
secrete pepsinogen
-
what is the function of G cells?
secrete gastrin
-
what is the function of gastrin?
stimulate acid secretion for digestion
-
what is the function of D cells?
secrete somatostatin
-
how long is an equine small intestine?
75 feet
-
what are the three divisions of the small intestine?
- 1. duodenum
- 2. jejunum
- 3. illium
-
what surrounds the villi of the intestines?
crypts of Lieberkuhn
-
what is the function of the crypts of Lieberkuhn?
secrete large amounts of fluid into the lumen of the small intestine
-
what is broken down by the digestive enzymes released from the pancreas?
-
what organ secrets bile salts?
liver
-
what is the shortest section of the small intestine?
illium
-
what are the two division of the large intestine?
-
what are the three division of the colon?
- 1. large ascending colon
- 2. transverse colon
- 3. small descending colon
-
what plant product is microbially digested in the cecum and colon?
cellulose
-
what does VFA stand for?
volatile fatty acids
-
-
what is between the ilium and the cecum?
large colon
-
how much can the cecum hold?
30 L
-
what are the three divisions of the cecum?
-
what are the two primary functions of the cecum?
- 1. absorb water and electrolytes
- 2. create an environment for microbial digestion
-
what is the common site for feed impactions in the colon?
pelvic flexure
-
what is the function of the small colon?
turn ingesta from the transverse colon into fecal balls by completing water absorption
-
what are the three functions of the nervous system?
- 1. sensory
- 2. integrative
- 3. motor
-
what are the three divisions of the nervous system?
- 1. central nervous system
- 2. peripheral nervous system
- 3. autonomic nervous system
-
what are the three items that comprise each neuron?
- 1. soma
- 2. axon
- 3. dendrite
-
where to axons carry nerve impulses?
away from the neuron to effector organs
-
what is the term for nervous tissue with myelinated axons?
white matter
-
what is the term for nervous tissue with non-myelinated axons?
grey matter
-
what part of the nervous system is comprised of grey matter?
spinal cord
-
what are the two functions of glial cells?
-
what is NOT a function of glial cells?
transmit nerve impulses
-
what is the term for specialized glial cells of the brain and spinal cord?
oligodendrocytes
-
what is the term for glial cells that constitute the myelin?
Schwann cells
-
what are three signs of upper motor neuron disease?
- 1. spasticity
- 2. hypermetria
- 3. exaggerated reflexes
-
what is a ganglion?
group of nerve cells where synapses occur enabling transmission
-
what are three signs for lower motor neuron disease?
- 1. weakness
- 2. trembling
- 3. neurogenic atrophy
-
what surrounds the brain and the spinal cord?
meninges
-
what are the three layers of the meninges?
- 1. dura mater
- 2. arachnoid mater
- 3. pia mater
-
where is the cerebrospinal fluid located?
subarachnoid space
-
which layer of the meninges actually covers the brain and spinal cord?
pia mater
-
what is provided to the brain and spinal cord from the blood of the meninges?
oxygen and nutrients
-
what are the two locations for retrieving CSF for a centesis?
- 1. lumbosacral space
- 2. atlanto occipital space
-
what are the three divisions of the brain?
- 1. forebrain (prosencephalon)
- 2. midbrain (mesencephalon)
- 3. hindbrain (rhomboencephalon)
-
what is the term for the folds of the brain?
gyri
-
what three sections are included in the hindbrain?
- 1. cerebellum
- 2. pons
- 3. medulla oblongata
-
what is an example of a simple spinal reflex?
panniculus reflex
-
what is the panniculus reflex?
twitch caused by a pinch that sends an impulse to the spinal cord which sends a motor impulse to the cutaneous trunci muscle
-
what are the two division of the autonomic nervous system?
- 1. sympathetic
- 2. parasympathetic
-
what is an alternate name for the autonomic nervous system?
visceral nervous system
-
what is the chemical messenger of the sympathetic nervous system?
norepinephrine
-
what is the chemical messenger of the parasympathetic nervous system?
acetylcholine
-
which blood vessel carries oxygenated blood into the kidney?
renal artery
-
what blood vessel carries deoxygenated blood out of the kidney?
renal vein
-
what type of tissue comprises the urinary bladder? why?
transitional - allows the bladder to stretch as the volume increase
-
what organ does the equine NOT have?
gall bladder
-
what is produced by hepatocytes?
bile
-
what is contained in bile?
- bile acids
- cholesterol
- bilirubin
-
what vitamins are stored in the liver?
- vitamin A
- vitamin D
- vitamin E
- vitamin K
-
what is the term for an enlarged liver?
hepatomegaly
-
what is secreted from the endocrine glands into systemic circulation?
hormones
-
what are the five major parts of the endocrine system?
- 1. pituitary gland
- 2. adrenal gland
- 3. thyroid gland
- 4. parathyroid gland
- 5. pancreas
-
what is another name for the pituitary gland?
hypophysis
-
what is the most important gland of the endocrine system?
pituitary gland
-
where is the pituitary gland located?
pituitary fossa
-
what are the three regions of the pituitary gland?
- 1. anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)
- 2. posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)
- 3. pars intermedia (between anterior and posterior)
-
what type of hormone is produced by the anterior pituitary?
trophic hormones
-
what is the function of trophic hormones?
stimulate growth of the target organ
-
what are two trophic hormones?
- 1. GH (Growth Hormone)/somatotropin
- 2. ACTH (adrenocorticotrophic hormone)
-
what is the function of the posterior pituitary gland?
store hormones
-
which hormones are stored in the posterior pituitary gland?
- oxytocin
- antidiuretic homone (vasopressin)
-
what is the main issue in equine Cushing's disease?
pars intermedia over produce hormones
-
what regulates pituitary gland hormones?
hypothalamus
-
what are the two main parts of each adrenal gland?
- 1. outer cortex
- 2. inner medulla
-
what is the function of the outer cortex of the adrenal gland?
produce steroid hormones
-
what is the function of the inner medulla of the adrenal gland?
produce catecholamine hormones
-
what are two examples of catecholamine hormones?
- 1. epinephrine
- 2. norepinephrine
-
what are the three divisions of the adrenal cortex?
- 1. zona glomerulosa
- 2. zona fasciculata
- 3. zona reticularis
-
which type of hormones is produced by the zona glomerulosa?
mineral corticoids
-
what is an example of a mineral corticoid?
aldosterone
-
which type of hormones is produced by the zona fasciculata?
glucocorticoids
-
which type of hormones is produced by the zona reticularis?
sex steroids
-
what is regulated by calcitonin?
blood calcium levels
-
what is regulated by parathyroid hormone?
blood calcium levels
-
blood calcium levels are regulated by two hormones - calcitonin and parathyroid hormone. what is the difference between the two?
- calcitonin - released when too much calcium
- parathyroid hormone - released when not enough calcium
-
what composes pancreatic tissue?
Islets of Langerhans
-
what is special about the pancreas?
both exocrine and endocrine gland
-
what are the two digestive enzymes produced by the exocrine pancreas?
-
what three cell types make up the endocrine pancreas?
- 1. beta cells
- 2. alpha cells
- 3. delta cells
-
what are the two primary hormones produced by the endocrine pancreas?
-
what is the function of insulin and glucagon?
work together to regulate blood glucose levels
-
what is released by beta cells?
insulin
-
what is released by alpha cells?
glucagon
-
what is released by delta cells?
somatostatin
-
what is the function of glucagon?
blood glucose is low, stimulates glucose production released by the liver
-
what is the function of somatostatin?
inhibit secretion of both insulin and glucagon
-
what are the three layers of the skin?
- 1. epidermis
- 2. dermis
- 3. hypodermis
-
what are the six functions of the skin?
- 1. protection
- 2. thermoregulation
- 3. sensation
- 4. contain exocrine glands
- 5. Vitamin D production
- 6. immune function
-
horses have the largest number of what glands?
sweat glands
-
what are the three layers of the eye?
- 1. sclera
- 2. uvea
- 3. retina
-
what is a another name for the third eyelid?
nictitans
-
what is mydriasis?
pupil dilation
-
what is myosis?
pupil contraction
-
what is contained within the retina that is vital for vision?
- 1. rod photoreceptors
- 2. cone photoreceptors
-
what is the function of rod photoreceptors?
black, darkness and white
-
what is the function of cone photoreceptors?
color, light
-
what are the common names for the three bones in the middle ear?
- 1. hammer
- 2. anvil
- 3. stirrup
-
what are the scientific names for the three bones in the middle ear?
- 1. maelleus
- 2. incus
- 3. stape
-
what are the ossicles?
three bones in the middle ear
-
what is the function of the ossicles?
transfer and amplify sound vibrations from the eardrum through the inner ear
-
what is the function of the eustachian tube?
pressure equilibrium between the external and middle ear
-
what are the two divisions of the skeleton?
-
what constitutes the axial skeleton?
- skull, vertebrae, ribs, tail
- top half of the body (head to tail)
-
what constitutes the appendicular skeleton?
structural support - forelimbs and hindlimbs
-
what is the vertebral formula of the horse?
-
what are the splint bones?
second and fourth metacarpal/metatarsal bones
-
what are the three constituents of bone?
- 1. osteoblasts
- 2. osteocytes
- 3. osteoclasts
-
what is the function of osteoblasts?
deposit osteoid on the the bone surface
-
what is the function of osteoclasts?
bone absorption
-
what are the two types of bone?
-
what is contained in cancellous bone to make blood cells?
hematopoietic bone marrow
-
what is the term for free motion joints?
synovial
-
what are the three groups of joints?
- 1. synovial
- 2. cartilaginous
- 3. fibrous
-
what is an example of a fibrous joint?
sutures of the skull
-
what can be caused by damage to any part of the synovial joint?
- degenerative joint disease
- osteoarthritis
-
what are the three classifications of muscle?
- 1. smooth
- 2. cardia
- 3. skeletal
-
what are the thick and thin filaments of the myofibrils of muscle?
- myosin - thick
- actin - thin
-
what is the function of tendons?
connect muscle to bones
-
what is the function of ligaments?
connect bones to bones
-
what are tendons and ligaments primary made of?
collagen fibers
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