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· Define the biologically relevant interactions (bonds) between molecules-
- o Ionic bonds- a atom donates or receives an electron and the charged ions attract each other through electrostatic attraction
- o Pure covalent bonds- two atoms share a pair of electron evenly
- o Polar covalent bonds- two atoms share a pair of electrons unevenly where the more electronegative atom gets them more, partial positives and partial negatives are formed.
- o Hydrogen bonds- A weak electrostatic bond which arises from the attraction between the slight positive charge on a hydrogen atom and a slight negative charge on a nearby oxygen or nitrogen atom.
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Listfunctional groups commonly found in biological molecules
· methyl, hydroxyl, amino, carboxyl, aldehyde, phosphate, sulfhydryl, phenyl
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List from memory the electronegativity of carbon,nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen.-
· O(3.4) N(3.0) C(2.6) H(2.2)
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List the different kinds of biologicalmacromolecules and their monomers macromolecule(monomer).-
nucleic acids (nucleotides), proteins (aminoacids), carbohydrates( simple sugars (glucose)), lipids( fatty acids (c-hbonds))
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· Describe the structure and functions of: simple sugars
o the general formula Cn(H2O)n, the primary energy source for many organisms
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describe the structure and function of nucleotides
o a nitrogen-containing base, a pentose sugar, and one to three phosphate groups/Monomer of dna and rna molecular energy transfer
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describe the structure and function of amino acids
o all contain two functional groups: the nitrogen-containing amino group and the carboxylic acid group, and third is occupied by a hydrogen atom. The fourth bonding electron is shared with a group that differs in each amino acid. This is often referred to as the R group, or side chain/ make up proteins and determine the function of the proteins
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· Summarize the different forms and functions of complex carbohydrates.
- o Starches comprise a family of giant molecules that are all polysaccharides of glucose. The different starches can be distinguished by the amount of branching in their polymers. Starch is the principal energy storage compound of plants.
- o Glycogen is a water-insoluble, highly branched polymer of glucose that is the major energy storage molecule in mammals.
- o Cellulose: in plants(cell wall) but a linkage that the human body cannot break o They are a source of stored energy that can be released in a form usable by organisms.
- o They are used to transport stored energy within complex organisms.
- o They function as structural molecules that give many organisms their shapes.
- o They serve as recognition or signaling molecules that can trigger specific biological responses.
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· Describe the possible levels of protein structure.
- o Primary structure: sequence of linked amino acids
- o The primary structure governs the formation and arrangement of other structures in a protein
- o Secondary structure: the formation of helices or sheets (all determined by the primary structure) alpha corkscrew, beta folding
- o Tertiary structure: how helices and sheets are arranged relative to one another o Quaternary structure: how multiple polypeptide chains are arranged into a single protein
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Summarize the fundamental property of all lipids-
· partially hydrophobic which means that at least part of it is nonpolar.
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Illustrate the structure of triglycerides and phospholipids
glycerol with three fatty acids
polar head, glycerol backbone, to fatty acids
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Predict what type of bond would be formed using electronegativity information
· .- less than .5 pure covalent greater than .5 polar covalent
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Describe the relationship between functionalgroups and the molecules they are part of.-
· they dertermine the properties and function of the larger molecules
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· Compare and contrast the structure and functions of DNA and RNA.
o DNA Monomer: nucleotide, AGCT/Function:Genetics, information storage long term heritable/Structure: Double helix of nucleic acid/Bond: Hydrogen bonds, Phosphodister (covalent bond)
o RNA Monomer: Nucleotides, AGCU/ Function: Genetics, using/accessing genetic information, temporary copy/ Structure: Single strand of nucleic acid/ Bonds: phosphodister
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· Describe the four types of lipids.
- o Phospholipids- polar head, glycerol backbone, fatty acid chain and it is amphipathic, and its function is membrane structure
- o Triglycerides- nonpolar, glycerol and three fatty acid chains and its function is energy strage for plants and animals
- o Fatty acids- all c=c bonds (double), unsaturated, liquid at room temperature,
- o Steroids- 4 carbon ring structure and function in nutrition, cellular signaling and building block of cell membrane
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· Describe how man-made fats are different from those found in nature and what their properties are.
- o Trans are fatty acids with trans configuration around c=c instead of cis configuration, unnatural
- o Semiliquid make it easier to transport fats
- o Cheaper for the food industry
- o Very unhealthy
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Ionic bond
· a bond resulting from electrostatic attraction bond between an anion and cation
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Electronegativity
· the strength of a an atom to attract electrons
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Covalent bond
sharing electrons in a bond
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polar covalent bond
the uneven sharing of electrons
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nonpolar covalent bonds
sharing electrons evenly
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Hydrogen bond
· the weak bond that exists between water that holds it together as a liquid through partial positive and partial negatives
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Cohesion of water-
· water molecules attraction to each other
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Adhesion of water-
waters ability to stay on a different surface
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hydrophobic
water fearing (nonpolar)
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hydrophillic
water loving (polar)
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functional groups
commonly found bonded together and determine the properties of larger molecules, give functionality
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Macromolecule
- a larger molecule that if made up of smaller molecules
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polymer
made of monomers, large molecules made through dehydration
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Synthesis (condensation
· dehydration by making a bond through the removal of water
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Degradation(hydrolysis
· )- the process of breaking bonds by adding water
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Carbohydrate-
· Macromolecules made entirely of just carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
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Glycosidic bond
- o
- Bond between carbohydrate (sugar) molecules through an intervening oxygen atom (–O–).
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Polysaccharide(complex carbohydrate )-
- o
- )- hundreds of sacaccharides attached with covalent bonds
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cellulose
A polysaccharide used for cellular structure rather than energy storage like other carbohydrates
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starch
energy storage in plants
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glycogen
A highly branched polysaccharide use by animals for cellular energy storage. Cannot be digested by humans
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Nucleic acid
· A polymer made up of nucleotides, specialized for the storage, transmission, and expression of genetic information. DNA and RNA are nucleic acids.
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RNA
· A macromolecule that contains the sugar ribose in its monomers.
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Phosphodiester bond
- o
- The connection in a nucleic acid strand, formed by linking two nucleotides.
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Nucleotide
- o
- The basic chemical unit in nucleic acids, consisting of a pentose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing base.
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Purine
Nucleotides that have two nitrogen-containing ringed bases fused together.
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Pyrimidine
- o
- One of the two types of nitrogenous bases in nucleic acids. Each of the _-cytosine, thymine, and uracil—pairs with a specific purine.
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Protein-
· Long-chain polymer of amino acids with twenty different common side chains. Occurs with its polymer chain extended in fibrous proteins, or coiled into a compact macromolecule in enzymes and other globular proteins.
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peptide bond
- o
- The bond between amino acids in a protein; formed between a carboxyl group and amino group (—CO—NH—) with the loss of water molecules.
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polypeptide
A large molecule made up of many amino acids joined by peptide linkages. Large polypeptides are called proteins.
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amino acid
what proteins re made of, 20 amino acids
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lipids
A class of macromolecules that play an important role both in energy storage and in forming cell membranes
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Steroid
Any of a family of lipids whose multiple rings share carbons. The steroid cholesterol is an important constituent of membranes; other steroids function as hormones.
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fats
- o
- A triglyceride that is solid at room temperature. (Contrast with oil.)
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fatty acids
A molecule made up of a long nonpolar hydrocarbon chain and a polar carboxyl group. Found in many lipids.
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saturated fatty acids
straight have hydrogen all around
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unsaturated fatty acid
bent have a double bond
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glycerol
A three-carbon alcohol with three hydroxyl groups; a component of phospholipids and triglycerides.
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triglyceride
Macromolecules that contain a glycerol and three fatty acids
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phospholipid
A lipid containing a phosphate group; an important constituent of cellular membranes.
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Amphipathic
· Of a molecule, having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions.
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· Name the components and dominant biochemical property of biological membranes
Phospholipids, integral proteins, peripheral proteins, glycoprotein, glycolipids§ Allows for the movement of substances in and out of the cell, semipermeable.
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· Summarize the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure.
§ Fluid: lipids, proteins not anchored; can move about from side to side (rarely flip sides)§ Mosaic: made of different parts: lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates
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· Describe the factors involved in membrane fluidity.
- § Temperature decreases: temperature decreases: cause membranes to become more solid
- § Temperature increases: cause membranes to become more fluid
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· Distinguish the types of membrane proteins
- § Transmembrane proteins- An integral membrane protein that spans the phospholipid bilayer
- § Peripheral proteins- Proteins associated with but not embedded within the plasma membrane.
- § Glycoproteins- A protein to which sugars are attached
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Describe forms of active transport across membranes
o Primary(use atp energy t go against the concentration gradient) and secondary(coupled)
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· Differentiate between channel proteins and carrier proteins.
o Channel proteins are tubes where molecules flow through, carrier proteins bind to a substance
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· Describe the function of the Na+/K+ pump.
o Uses ATP energy to go against the concentration gradient to pump sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell
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Distinguish between endocytosis and exocytosis
o Endocytosis is bring substances into the cell and exocytosis is releasing substances from the cell
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· Summarize similarities and differences among diverse membrane lipids
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Phospholipids can differ in terms of fatty acid chain length (number of carbon atoms), degree of unsaturation (number of double bonds) in the fatty acids, and the kinds of polar (phosphate-containing) groups present., and the amount of brabnching
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· Predict the structure of a membrane, given data from the membrane structure experiment.
If the surface area of the phospholipids is 2 to 1 of the surface area of the cells than it is a bilayer 1:1 monolayer 4:1 double bilayer
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· Predict the changes a cell might make to membrane fluidity in response to a temperature change.
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Temperature decreases: temperature decreases: cause membranes to become more solid Temperature increases: cause membranes to become more fluid Unsaturated fatty acids: increase fluidity Shorter fatty acid chains: increase fluidity Saturated fatty acids: decrease fluidity Longer fatty acid chains: decrease fluidity
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· Compare & contrast different types of diffusion, active transport, and osmosis.
go look at the table you made
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· Predict the movement of water across a membrane based on the tonicity of a solution outside the cell.
- o
- Hypertonic: water will flow into the cello Hypotonic: water will
- flow out of the cello Isotonic: water will flow in and out f the cell at the same rate
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· Explain the energetics of coupled transport.
- o
- Works with primary active transport
- o When protons go into a cell they release energy which is caputured by the protein
- o Energy used to drive sucrose into the cell o Uses energy of the facilitated diffusion
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Predict the force and mechanism to move a substance across a membrane, given a set of conditions
- o
- Remember low to high, permeability (small non charged) and other things
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· Explain how endocytosis can be specific.
- o
- Phagocytosis(receptor mediated endocytosis)- specific, have receptors on membrane surface and cause endocytosis
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· Summarize what happens to endocytic vesicles and their contents upon moving into a cell.
- o
- Form vesicles are fused with other vesicles and form an endosome where contents are processed, then fuse with a lysosome where enzymes digest
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transmembrane proteins
· An integral membrane protein that spans the phospholipid bilayer.
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peripheral protein
· - A protein that is associated with a membrane but does not protrude into the hydrophobic interior of the membrane.
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glycolipid
· A lipid to which sugars are attached
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glycoprotein
· Molecule that is a made up of both protein and carbohydrate parts
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concentration gradient
· What is the term given to a situation where the amount of a dissolved solute is different on either side of a cell membrane
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simple diffusion
- The term that describes the process of a small molecule passing directly through the phospholipids of a membrane, going from high concentration to low concentration
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facilitated diffusion
· The process by which ions or small charged molecules cross a membrane with the assistance of of a membrane protein, but without the use of energy
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osmosis
· The process by which water moves across a membrane.
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isotonic
o Having the same solute concentration; said of two solutions
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hypertonic
o A solution that has a higher concentration of solutes than than the solution on the other side of a membrane.
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hypotonic
o Having a lesser solute concentration. Said of one solution in comparing it to another.
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Aquaporin
- -A transport protein
- in plant and animal cell membranes through which water passes in osmosis
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channel protein
· A transport protein that forms a pore in a membrane, thereby allowing charged substances to cross the membrane without binding to the transported substance
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carrier protein
· - A membrane protein that binds to a substance to transport it across a cell membrane.
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active transport
· The process by which molecules are moved across a membrane using cellular energy.
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passive transport
· - Any process whereby substances are moved across a membrane without the direct use of energy by the cell.
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phospholipids
· The molecules that forms the main hydrophobic core of a cell membrane
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primary active transport
o Active transport in which ATP is hydrolyzed, yielding the energy required to transport an ion or molecule against its concentration gradient.
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secondary active transport
o - A form of active transport that does not use ATP as an energy source; rather, transport is coupled to ion diffusion down a concentration gradient established by primary active transport.
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endocytosis
· The general term for processes that bring macromolecules, particles, and small cells into another cell.
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excocytosis
· The process by which large molecules or particles are moved out of a cell.
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