bio exam good set

• o   Ionic bonds- a atom donates or receives  an electron and the charged ions attract each other through electrostatic attraction
• o   Pure covalent bonds- two atoms share a pair of electron evenly
• o   Polar covalent bonds- two atoms share a pair of electrons unevenly where the more electronegative atom gets them more, partial positives and partial negatives are formed.
• o   Hydrogen bonds- A weak electrostatic bond which arises from the attraction between the slight positive charge on a hydrogen atom and a slight negative charge on a nearby oxygen or nitrogen atom.

·       methyl, hydroxyl, amino, carboxyl, aldehyde, phosphate, sulfhydryl, phenyl

·       O(3.4) N(3.0) C(2.6) H(2.2)

nucleic acids (nucleotides), proteins (aminoacids), carbohydrates( simple sugars (glucose)), lipids( fatty acids (c-hbonds))

o   the general formula Cn(H2O)n, the primary energy source for many organisms

o   a nitrogen-containing base, a pentose sugar, and one to three phosphate groups/Monomer of dna and rna molecular energy transfer

o   all contain two functional groups: the nitrogen-containing amino group and the carboxylic acid group, and  third is occupied by a hydrogen atom. The fourth bonding electron is shared with a group that differs in each amino acid. This is often referred to as the R group, or side chain/ make up proteins and determine the function of the proteins

• o   Starches comprise a family of giant molecules that are all polysaccharides of glucose. The different starches can be distinguished by the amount of branching in their polymers. Starch is the principal energy storage compound of plants.
• o   Glycogen is a water-insoluble, highly branched polymer of glucose that is the major energy storage molecule in mammals.
• o   Cellulose: in plants(cell wall) but a linkage that the human body cannot break o   They are a source of stored energy that can be released in a form usable by organisms.
• o   They are used to transport stored energy within complex organisms.
• o   They function as structural molecules that give many organisms their shapes.
• o   They serve as recognition or signaling molecules that can trigger specific biological responses.

• o   Primary structure: sequence of linked amino acids
• o   The primary structure governs the formation and arrangement of other structures in a protein
• o   Secondary structure:  the formation of helices or sheets (all determined by the primary structure) alpha corkscrew, beta folding
• o   Tertiary structure:  how helices and sheets are arranged relative to one another o   Quaternary structure: how multiple polypeptide chains are arranged into a single protein

·       partially hydrophobic which means that at least part of it is nonpolar.

glycerol with three fatty acids

polar head, glycerol backbone, to fatty acids

·       .- less than .5 pure covalent greater than .5 polar covalent

·       they dertermine the properties and function of the larger molecules

o   DNA Monomer: nucleotide, AGCT/Function:Genetics, information storage long term heritable/Structure: Double helix of nucleic acid/Bond:  Hydrogen bonds, Phosphodister (covalent bond)

o   RNA    Monomer: Nucleotides, AGCU/ Function: Genetics, using/accessing genetic information, temporary copy/ Structure: Single strand of nucleic acid/ Bonds: phosphodister

• o   Phospholipids- polar head, glycerol backbone, fatty acid chain and it is amphipathic, and  its function is membrane structure
• o   Triglycerides- nonpolar, glycerol and three fatty acid chains and its function is energy strage for plants and animals
• o   Fatty acids- all c=c bonds (double), unsaturated, liquid at room temperature,
• o   Steroids- 4 carbon ring structure and function in nutrition, cellular signaling and building block of cell membrane

• o   Trans are fatty acids with trans configuration around c=c instead of cis configuration, unnatural
• o   Semiliquid make it easier to transport fats
• o   Cheaper for the food industry
• o   Very unhealthy

·       a bond resulting from electrostatic attraction bond between an anion and cation

·       the strength of a an atom to attract electrons

sharing electrons in a bond

the uneven sharing of electrons

sharing electrons evenly

·       the weak bond that exists between water that holds it together as a liquid through partial positive and partial negatives

·       water molecules attraction to each other

waters ability to stay on a different surface

water fearing (nonpolar)

water loving (polar)

commonly found bonded together and determine the properties of larger molecules, give functionality

- a larger molecule that if made up of smaller molecules

made of monomers, large molecules made through dehydration

small molecules

·       dehydration by making a bond through the removal of water

·       )- the process of breaking bonds by adding water

·       Macromolecules made entirely of just carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

• o  
• Bond between carbohydrate (sugar) molecules through an intervening oxygen atom (–O–).

• o  
• )- hundreds of sacaccharides attached with covalent bonds

A polysaccharide used for cellular structure rather than energy storage like other carbohydrates

energy storage in plants

A highly branched polysaccharide use by animals for cellular energy storage. Cannot be digested by humans

·       A polymer made up of nucleotides, specialized for the storage, transmission, and expression of genetic information. DNA and RNA are nucleic acids.

·       A macromolecule that contains the sugar ribose in its monomers.

• o  
• The connection in a nucleic acid strand, formed by linking two nucleotides.

• o  
• The basic chemical unit in nucleic acids, consisting of a pentose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing base.

Nucleotides that have two nitrogen-containing ringed bases fused together.

• o  
• One of the two types of nitrogenous bases in nucleic acids. Each of the _-cytosine, thymine, and uracil—pairs with a specific purine.

·       Long-chain polymer of amino acids with twenty different common side chains. Occurs with its polymer chain extended in fibrous proteins, or coiled into a compact macromolecule in enzymes and other globular proteins.

• o  
• The bond between amino acids in a protein; formed between a carboxyl group and amino group (—CO—NH—) with the loss of water molecules.

A large molecule made up of many amino acids joined by peptide linkages. Large polypeptides are called proteins.

what proteins re made of, 20 amino acids

A class of macromolecules that play an important role both in energy storage and in forming cell membranes

Any of a family of lipids whose multiple rings share carbons. The steroid cholesterol is an important constituent of membranes; other steroids function as hormones.

• o  
• A triglyceride that is solid at room temperature. (Contrast with oil.)

A molecule made up of a long nonpolar hydrocarbon chain and a polar carboxyl group. Found in many lipids.

straight have hydrogen all around

bent have a double bond

A three-carbon alcohol with three hydroxyl groups; a component of phospholipids and triglycerides.

Macromolecules that contain a glycerol and three fatty acids

A lipid containing a phosphate group; an important constituent of cellular membranes.

·       Of a molecule, having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions.

Phospholipids, integral proteins, peripheral proteins, glycoprotein, glycolipids§  Allows for the movement of substances in and out of the cell, semipermeable.

§  Fluid:  lipids, proteins not anchored; can move about from side to side (rarely flip sides)§  Mosaic: made of different parts: lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates

• §  Temperature decreases: temperature decreases: cause membranes to become more solid
• §  Temperature increases:  cause membranes to become more fluid

• §  Transmembrane proteins- An integral membrane protein that spans the phospholipid bilayer
• §  Peripheral proteins- Proteins associated with but not embedded within the plasma membrane.
• §  Glycoproteins- A protein to which sugars are attached

o   Primary(use atp energy t go against the concentration gradient) and secondary(coupled)

o   Channel proteins are tubes where molecules flow through, carrier proteins bind to a substance

o   Uses ATP energy to go against the concentration gradient to pump sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell

o   Endocytosis is bring substances into the cell and exocytosis is releasing substances from the cell

If the surface area of the        phospholipids is 2 to 1 of the surface area of the cells than it is a        bilayer 1:1 monolayer 4:1 double bilayer

go look at the table you made

• o  
• Hypertonic: water will flow into the cello   Hypotonic: water will
• flow out of the cello   Isotonic: water will flow in and out f the cell at the same rate

• o  
• Works with primary active transport
• o   When protons go into a cell they release energy which is caputured by the protein
• o   Energy used to drive sucrose into the cell o   Uses energy of the facilitated diffusion

• o  
• Remember low to high, permeability (small non charged) and other things

• o  
• Phagocytosis(receptor mediated endocytosis)- specific, have receptors on membrane surface and cause endocytosis

• o  
• Form vesicles are fused with other vesicles and form an endosome where contents are processed, then fuse with a lysosome where enzymes digest

·       An integral membrane protein that spans the phospholipid bilayer.

·       - A protein that is associated with a membrane but does not protrude into the hydrophobic interior of the membrane.

·       A lipid to which sugars are attached

·       Molecule that is a made up of both protein and carbohydrate parts

·       What is the term given to a situation where the amount of a dissolved solute is different on either side of a cell membrane

- The term that describes the process of a small molecule passing directly through the phospholipids of a membrane, going from high concentration to low concentration

·       The process by which ions or small charged molecules cross a membrane with the assistance of of a membrane protein, but without the use of energy

·       The process by which water moves across a membrane.

o   Having the same solute concentration; said of two solutions

o   A solution that has a higher concentration of solutes than than the solution on the other side of a membrane.

o   Having a lesser solute concentration. Said of one solution in comparing it to another.

• -A transport protein
• in plant and animal cell membranes through which water passes in osmosis

·       A transport protein that forms a pore in a membrane, thereby allowing charged substances to cross the membrane without binding to the transported substance

·       - A membrane protein that binds to a substance to transport it across a cell membrane.

·       The process by which molecules are moved across a membrane using cellular energy.

·       - Any process whereby substances are moved across a membrane without the direct use of energy by the cell.

·       The molecules that forms the main hydrophobic core of a cell membrane

o   Active transport in which ATP is hydrolyzed, yielding the energy required to transport an ion or molecule against its concentration gradient.

o   - A form of active transport that does not use ATP as an energy source; rather, transport is coupled to ion diffusion down a concentration gradient established by primary active transport.

·       The general term for processes that bring macromolecules, particles, and small cells into another cell.

·       The process by which large molecules or particles are moved out of a cell.