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Anatomy
study of structure of body parts and their relationships to one another
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Subdivision of anatomy
gross or macroscopic - seen with the naked eye. microscopic - things viewed with a microscope. developmental - embryology
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To study anatomy
mastery of anatomical terminology-observation- manipulation - palpation - auscultation
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s Physiology
- - study of the function of the body
- - subdivision based on organ systems
- ( e.g. renal or cardiovascular physiology)
- - often focuses on cellular and molecular level
- - Body's abilities depend on chemical reactions in in individual cell
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To study physiology
- - Ability to focus at many level (from systemic to cellular and molecular
- - Study of basic physical principles (e.g. electrical currents, pressure,and movement)
- - Study of basic chemical principles
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anatomy and physiology
- - Function always reflects structure
- - What a structure can do depends on its specific form
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Level of structural organization
- chemical- atoms and molecules and organelles
- cellular - cell
- tissue - groups of similar cells
- organ- contains two or more types of tissues
- organ system - organs that work closely together
- organismal - all organ systems
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Necessary life functions
- - maintaining boundaries - cover of cells
- - movement - stomach, cardiac
- - responsiveness - nervous system, picking up stimuli
- - digestion - food
- - metabolism - all chemical reactions that occurs in body cells
- - dispose of waste - kidney filter, blood waste
- - reproduction - keeping species alive
- - growth
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necessary life function maintain boundaries
- maintaining boundaries between internal and external environments.
- - plasma membranes
- - skin
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necessary lie function movement
- movement ( contractility)
- - of body parts (skeletal muscle)
- -of substances ( cardiac and smooth muscle)
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necessary life function responsiveness
- responsiveness
- - ability to sense and respond to stimuli
- - withdrawal reflex
- - control of breathing rate
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necessary life function digestion
- digestion
- -breakdown and ingested foodstuffs
- - absorption of simple molecules into blood
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necessary life function metaboloism
- metabolism
- - all chemical reactions that occur in body cells
- - catabolism and anabolism
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necessary life function excretion
- excretion
- - removal of waste from metabolism and digestion
- - urea, carbon dioxide , feces
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necessary life function reproduction
- reproduction
- - cellular division for growth or repair
- - production of offspring
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necessary life function growth
- growth
- - increases in size of a body part or of organism
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interdependence of body cell human are multicellular
- - to function must keep individual cell alive
- - all cells depend on organ systems to meet their survival needs
- - all body functions spread among different organ systems
- - organ systems cooperate to maintain life
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Survival needs - Nutrients
- nutrients
- - chemicals for energy and cell building
- - carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals and vitamins
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Survival needs - Oxygen
- oxygen
- - essential for energy release (ATP production)
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Survival needs - Water
- water
- - most abundant chemical in body
- - environment of chemical reactions
- - fluid base for secretions and excretions
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Survival needs - normal body temp
- temp
- - 37 Celsius or 98.6 f
- - affects rate of chemical reactions
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Survival needs
- appropriate atmospheric pressure
- - or adequate breathing and gas exchange in lungs
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Homeostasis
- - Maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions despite continuous changes in environment
- - a dynamic state of equilibrium
- - Maintained by contributions of all organ systems
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Homeostatic control mechanisms
- - involve continuous monitoring and regulation of all factors that can change ( variables)
- - communication necessary for monitoring and regulation
- (function of the nervous and endocrine system)
- - Nervous and endocrine systems accomplish communication via nerve impulses and hormones
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Components of Control Mechanism
- Receptors ( sensor)
- - Monitors environment
- - Responds to stimuli
- (something that causes changes in controlled variables)
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Control Mechanism - Control Center
- - Control center (brain)
- - Determines set point at which variables is maintained
- - Receives input from receptor
- - Determines appropriate response
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Control Mechanism - Effectors
- - Effectors ( the organ that responds)
- - Receives output from control center
- - Provides the means to respond
- - Response either reduces (NF) or enhances stimulus (PF)
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Components of control mechanism
- - RECEPTORS
- - CONTROL CENTER
- - EFFECTORS
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Negative Feedback (NF)
- - most feedback mechanisms in body
- - response reduces or shuts off original stimulus
- --variable changes in opposite direction of initial change--
- EXAMPLE
- Regulation of body temp (nervous system)
- Regulation of blood volume by ADH ( endocrine system)
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Negative Feedback: Regulation of blood volume by ADH
- - Receptors sense decrease in blood volume
- - Control center in hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to release antiduiretic hormone (ADH)
- - ADH causes kidneys (effectors) to return more water to the blood
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Positive Feedback (PF)
- - Response enhances or exaggerates original stimulus
- - May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect
- - Usually controls infrequent events that do not require continuous adjustment
- -- Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin
- -- Platelet plug formation and blood clotting
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Homeostatic imbalance
- - Disturbance of homeostasis
- -- Increase risk o disease
- -- Contributes to changes associated with aging
- -- If NF mechanisms are overwhelmed.
- Destructive positive feedback mechanisms may take over ( heart failure)
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Anatomical position
- - Body erect feet slightly apart, palms facing forward, thumbs pointing away from the body
- - Directional Terms will always refer to the body in the anatomical position
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Superior/Inferior
- Toward and away from the head respectively.
- (cannot be used in reference to limbs)
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Anterior/Posterior
Toward the front and back of the body, because we are bipedal
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Regional terms
- Axial - Head, neck and trunk
- Appendicular - limbs
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Anatomical Variability
- Humans differ externally and internally
- - 90% of all structures present in bod match description in textbook
- - Nerve or blood vessel may be out of place
- - Small muscle may be missing
- - Extreme variations inconsistent with life
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body plane
flat surface along which body or structure may be cut for anatomical study
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sections
cuts or sections made along a body plane
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Three most common section
- Sagittal plane - divides body vertically into right and left parts.
- Frontal (coronal ) plane - Divides body vertically into anterior and posterior parts
- Transverse ( horizontal plane - Divides body horizontally ( 90% to vertical plane) into superior and inferior parts
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oblique section
result of cuts at angle other than 90% to vertical plane
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