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4 key concepts of cellular organization
- molecular complementary
- chemical building blocks
- chemical equilibrium
- chemical bond energy
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cell
fundamental units of life
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3 characteristics of cells
- small
- membrane enclosed units filled with a concentrated aq solution of chemicals
- ability to create copies of themselves by divison
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made more than 500 optical lenses
leeuwenhoek
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studied many cell types
(sperm too)
leeuwenhoek
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first to report the existence and presence of bacteria in various substances
leeuwenhoek
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leeuwenhoek described the cells he saw in his sperm as
a forward moving with a snake like motion of its tail
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control
an experiment in whose result is known and well established
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positive/negative control
a control in which the outcome will always be positive/negative
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these 2 are key concepts when it comes to designing experiments
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necessary
if when we take it out, the phenomenon we are studying is disrupted
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sufficient
if when adding it to a system by itself, it causes that which we study
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kinase
an enzyme that adds phosphates to a protein
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phosphatase
an enzyme that removes phosphates from a protein
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5 characteristics a model organism needs to have
- readily available
- rapid reproduction
- amenable to genetic manipulations
- transparent
- cheap
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6 characters viruses have to be model organisms
- proteins involved in DNA, RNA, protein syn
- gene regulation
- cancer and control of cell proliferation
- transport of proteins and organelles in cell
- infection and immunity
- possible gene therapy approaches
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5 characteristics bacteria needs to be a model organism
- proteins involved in DNA, RNA, protein syn, and metabolism
- gene regulation
- target for new antibiotics
- cell cycling
- signaling
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6 characteristics of yeast as a model organism
- control of cell cycle and cell division
- protein secretion and membrane biogenesis
- function of the cytoskeleton
- cell differentiation
- aging
- gene regulation and chromosome structure
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8 characteristics of roundworm as a model organism
- development of bod plan
- cell lineage
- formation and function of NS
- control of programmed cell death
- cell proliferation and cancer genes
- aging
- behavior
- gene regulation and chromosome structure
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8 characteristics of fruit fly as a model organism
- development of body plan
- generation of diff cell lineages
- formation of NS, heart, and musculature
- programmed cell death
- genetic control of behavior
- cancer genes and control of cell proliferation
- control of cell polarization
- effects of drugs, alcohol, and pesticides
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mapped out every cell of the roundworm that helped with understanding the role of tRNA and the existence of the triplet code
brenner
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proposed that genes were located in chromsomes
morgan
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7 characteristics of plants as a model organism
- development and patterning of tissues
- genetics of cell bio
- agricultural applications
- physiology
- gene regulation
- immunity
- infectious disease
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4 characteristics of zebra fish as a model organism
- development of vertebrate body tissues
- formation and function of brain and NS
- birth defects
- cancer
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6 characteristics of mouse as a model organism
- development of body tissues
- function of the mammalian immune system
- form and function of brain and nervous system
- models of cancers and other human diseases/ gene regulation and inheritance
- infectious disease
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thought that flies could be a good model organism for the study of inheritance
woodworth
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proposed that genes were located in chromosomes
morgan
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resolution
resolving power of a microscope
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what does resolution do in microscopy
gives the ability to distinguish between 2 very closely positioned objects
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magnification
number of times an images size is enlarged
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if an object is magnified beyond the resolving power of an optical system, the image will be blurry
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light microscope
a microscope that uses visible light and a system of lenses to magnify images of small samples
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bright field (light background with dark image)
contrast comes from absorbance of light in the sample
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dark field (dark background w/light image)
contrast comes from light scattered by the sample
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cross polarized light (dark background w/3D looking image)
contrast comes from rotation of polarized light through the sample
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phase contrast (light background w/ dark 3D image)
contrast comes from interference of different path lengths of light through the sample
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bright field illumination (grey background and image but dark outlines the sample)
contrast comes from absorbance of a tungsten light in a sample
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the techniques of brightfield, differential interference contrast, and phase contrast
generate contrast by taking advantage of differences in the refractive index and thickness of cellular materials
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is based on interference of polarized light
DIC
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this kind of microscope technique is good for small details and thick objects
DIC
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brightness and darkness depends on refractive index of the area
phase contrast
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good for single cells or thin tissues
phase contrast
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primary antibody
one that binds to the protein of interest in the cell
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secondary antibody
binds to the Fc domian of the primary antibody
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how localize a specific protein in fixed tissue sections by indirect immunofluorescence microscopy
- prepare sample and place on microscope slide
- incubate with primary antibody then wash away unbound antibody
- incubate with fluorochrome conjugated secondary antibody
- wash away unbound antibody
- mount specimen and observe in fluorescence microscope
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in order to use fluorescence
need to introduce a fluorescent protein of interest in an animal or label a protein/area of interest using immunohistochemistry with fluorescently labelled antibodies
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this microscopy technique is ideal for single proteins and molecules
fluorescence microscopy
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after GFP was cloned, researchers were about to design mutations to the sequence and create similar proteins that would have different absorbance and emission spectrums
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fluorescent compounds can be sensitive to ions such as Ca+ or H+
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this microscopy technqiue is not good for fast images due to the pinhole needing to be moved around to cover the whole image
confocal
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confocal microscopy uses what as a light source
laser
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how does confocal microscopy work
a pinhole is located in front of the detector. this blocks the light that doesnt originate from the focal plane which reduces scatter and blur
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in order for samples in electron microscopy to be observed
the samples must by labeled with heavy metals
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how does electron microscopy work
beams of electrons are used to produce images
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wavelengths of electron beams are much shorter than light, resulting in much higher resolution
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difference between light microscopes and electron microscopes
in EM, electromagnetic lenses focus a high velocity electron beam
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2 types of electron microscopy
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transmission EM
light background with fuzzy grey images
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scanning EM
dark background with 3D looking grey images
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