A&PII EXAM I

1. Study of structure

2. macroscopic strucuture

3. function

• Chemical
• Cell
• Tissue
• Organ
• System
• Organism

Away/towards midline

towards/away from point of origin

Ventral (frontside)/ Dorsal (backside)

above(towards head)/below(towards tail)

external / internal

same side / opposite side

left & right portions

superior & inferior portions

anterior &posterior portions

Cranial - contains brain

vertebral - contains spinal cord

• thoracic ( diaphragm) contains heart and lungs
• abdominal contains liver, stomach, intestines
• pelvic contains reproductive and urinary structures

• balance, dynamic equilibrium
• a. sensors, control center, effectors
• b. positive/ negative feedback loops

• 1. visceral efferent of Peripheral Nervous System
• 2. Smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands
• 3. Below concious level (involuntary)

• part of the ANS
• 1. expends energy
• 2. preganglionic neurons T1 - L2
• 3. Adrenal medulla

• part of the ANS
• 1. Conserves energy
• 2. Preganglionic neurons S2-S4; Cranial Nerves III, VII, IX, X
• 3. Not to skin, blood vessels

• Acetylcholine Cholinergic nerve fibers
• a. Parasympathetic Pre & Postganglionic fibers
• b. Sympathetic Preganglitionc fibers
• Norepinephrine Adrenergic nerve fibers
• a. Sympathetic Postganglionic fibers

Hypothalamus

• HORMONES
• create dynamic equilibrium (homeostasis)

• 1. Regulatory System
• 2. Maintains homeostasis internally
• 3. Responds to help cope with environmental changes
• 4. Growth & development
• 5. Reproduction

• Exocrine releases contents into ducts or skin surface.
• Endocrine glands are ductless and release contents into blood.

Chemical messenger carried by bloodstream, made by endocrine glands.

organic, amino acids, cholesterol derivatives

• Many are bound to specific carrier proteins so you don't urinate them out. They are inactive when bound. Become active once they are transported and released by carrier protein.

• a. Target cell - responds to certain hormone (lock and key system)
• b. Receptors are within Plasma membrane or within target cell
• c. Second messenger cAMP
• 1. Stimulatory
• 2. Inhibitory
• d. Activation of genes - hormones turn genes on - goes into cell nucleus.
• 1. Hormonal interrelationships
• 2. N.S. & Endocrine relationships are closely linked together.

• Hypothalamus releases or inhibits hormones
• - negative feeback

Sella turcica of sphenoid bone

• Anterior Lobe - Adenohypophisis
• Posterior Lobe - Neurohypophisis

• anterior lobe of pituitary gland
• FLITAGPM
• 3 Gonadotropins (stimulates gonads)
• 1. FSH - Follicle stimulating hormone
• 2. LH - Luteinizing horomone
• 3. ICSH - Interstitial cell stimulating horomone

• other hormones
• 4. TSH - THyroid stimulating hormone
• 5. ACTH Adrenocorticotropic hormone
• 6. GH Growth Hormone
• 7. Prolactin
• 8. Melanocyte stimulating hormone

FYI - endorphins are also made by Adenohypophisis

• (Adenohypohysis)
• FSH - Follicle stimulating hormone - stimulates follicle development in ovaries, stimulates sperm production and maturation in male.
• LH- Luteinizing hormone - results in ovulation in female
• ICSH- Interstitial cell stimulating hormone - results in testosterone production in male

Thyroid stimulating hormone

Adrenocorticotropic hormone

Growth hormone

initiates and maintains milk production in female

Melanocyte stimulating hormone stimulates skin melanin/ pigment

Peptides made by Adenohypohysis in addition to the hormones that has opiate-like effects

• hypothalamus makes hormones both inhibitory and stimulatory
• GnRH- Gondadotropin releasing hormone
• TRH - THyrotropin releasing hormone
• PIF- Prolactin inhibiting factor
• CRF - Corticotropin releasing factor
• Somatostatin - Growth hormone inhibiting hormone

posterior lobe of pituitary gland

• Infundibulum
• Antidiuretic hormone
• Oxytocin

hypothalamic - hypophyseal tract

• neurohypophysis only stores hormones - hypothalamus makes them
• Antidiuretic hormone - causes water reabsorption from kidney to bloodstream

• neurohypophysis only stores hormones - hypothalamus makes them
• Uterine contractions for childbirth and milk letdown

• inferior larynx/ superios trachea

• follicle cells (bag/sac), colloid
• think cobblestone walkway

• Iodine - only place iodine is found in the body.
• 1. T4 (thyroxine) 90%
• 2. T3 (triiodothyronine) 10%
• TBG - thyroid binding globulin- Most thyroid hormones (T3 & T4) are carried in plasma bound to TBG

• Regulates metabolic rate
• Controls - TSH, TRH, negative feedback

• made in the Thyroid gland
• if blood calcium is too high, thyroid gland releases Calcitonin to decrease Ca & P.
• Parafollicular = C cells

* note: too much calcium in blood stream causes tetany - constant muscle contraction (icludes heart and diaphragm) =death

ALL chemical reactions in body

• hyperthyroidism - high metabolism, lots of T3, T4
• hypothyroidism - low metabolism, not enough T3, T4

• 1. 4 - embeddd in posterior surface of thyroid gland
• 2. (=parathormone) function --> increases Ca; decreases P
• - if blood calcium levels are low, PTH is secreted ( pulls calcium out of the bone)

1. superior to kidney

• a. Chromaffin cells
• b. Epinephrine 80%, norepinephrine 20%
• c. action(glucose, ht, blood vessels, blood pressure, airways)
• d. realease (pregang. neurons, excitement, injury)

a. Mineralocorticoids

b. Glucocorticoids

c. Sex hormones

• 1. Zona glomerulosa - outermost layer
• 2. Aldosterone (90%)
• 3. Na reabsorption, K excretion - in kidneys
• 4. Release / controls
• a. renin/angiotensinogen
• Renin is an enzyme made by the kidneys in response to low blood pressure. It causes inactive angiotensinogen to activate into Angiotensin, which stimulates Aldosterone release
• b. High K, Low Na
• c. ACTH, CRH

• 1. Zona fasciculata - very thick middle layer
• 2. Conserves & supplements energy
• 3. Anti-inflammatory
• 4. Release/controls
• a. ACTH, CRH
• b. Stress

1. Zona reticularis - innermost layer

behing stomach and along duodenum(first part of small intestine)

• 2. Exocrine & endocrine
• 3. Pancreatic islets (of langerhans) - ENDOCRINE portion
• 4. Insulin ( beta cells, lowers blood glucose)
• 5. Glucagon (alpha cells, raises blood glucose)
• 6. Somatostatin (delta cells, inhibits growth hormone release)
• 7. release/controls
• a. blood glucose level
• b. GI hormones - meals/between meals
• c. ANS

Testes make androgens to be discussed later, Ovaries make estrogens and progesterones to be discussed later.