TEAS Downloaded Cards

• Contain mucus, antibodies, and lysozymeƒ
• Enter the eye via superolateral excretory ducts ƒ
• Exit the eye medially via the lacrimal punctumƒ
• Drain into the nasolacrimal duct

• ƒ Six straplike extrinsic eye musclesƒ
• Enable the eye to follow moving objectsƒ
• Maintain the shape of the eyeballƒ
• Four rectus musclesƒ
• Two oblique muscles move the eye in the vertical plane

• A slightly irregular hollow sphere with anterior and posterior polesƒ
• The wall is composed of three tunics – fibrous, vascular, and sensoryƒ
• The internal cavity is filled with fluids called humorsƒ
• The lens separates the internal cavity into anterior and posterior segments

• central opening of the iris
• Regulates the amount of light entering the eye during: ƒ
• Close vision and bright light – pupils constrictƒ
• Distant vision and dim light – pupils dilateƒ
• Changes in emotional state – pupils dilate when the subject matter is appealing or requires problem-solving skills

• A delicate two-layered membraneƒ
• Pigmented layer – the outer layer that absorbs light and prevents its scatteringƒ
• Neural layer, which contains:ƒ
• Photoreceptors that transduce light energyƒ
• Bipolar cells

• The optic disc:ƒ
• Is the site where the optic nerve leaves the eyeƒ
• Lacks photoreceptors (the blind spot)

• The lens separates the internal eye into anterior and posterior segmentsƒ
• The posterior segment is filled with a clear gel called vitreous humor

• Transmits lightƒ
• Supports the posterior surface of the lens ƒ
• Holds the neural retina firmly against the pigmented layerƒ
• Contributes to intraocular pressure

• A biconvex, transparent, flexible, avascular structure that:ƒ
• Allows precise focusing of light onto the retinaƒ
• With age, the lens becomes more compact and dense and loses its elasticity

Pathway of light entering the eye: cornea, aqueous humor, lens, vitreous humor, and the neural layer of the retina to the photoreceptors

gustation (taste) and olfaction (smell)

• Taste – to substances dissolved in salivaƒ
• Smell – to substances dissolved in fluids of the nasal membranes

• The organ of smell is the olfactory epithelium, which covers the superior nasal conchaƒ
• Olfactory receptor cells are bipolar neurons with radiating olfactory cilia

Olfactory receptors respond to several different odor-causing chemicals

• Most of the 10,000 or so taste buds are found on the tongueƒ
• Taste buds are found in papillae of the tongue mucosaƒ
• Papillae come in three types: filiform, fungiform, and circumvallateƒ
• Fungiform and circumvallate papillae contain taste buds

• ƒ In order to be tasted, a chemical:ƒ
• Must be dissolved in salivaƒ
• Must contact gustatory hairsƒ
• Binding of the food chemical:ƒ
• Depolarizes the taste cell membrane, releasing neurotransmitterƒ
• Initiates a generator potential that elicits an action potential

• ƒ Taste is 80% smellƒ
• Thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, nociceptorsalso influence tastesƒ
• Temperature and texture enhance or detract from taste

• ƒ The three parts of the ear are the inner, outer, and middle earƒ
• The outer and middle ear are involved with hearingƒ
• The inner ear functions in both hearing and equilibriumƒ
• Receptors for hearing and balance: ƒ
• Respond to separate stimuliƒ
• Are activated independently

• The auricle (pinna) is composed of:ƒ
• The helix (rim)ƒ
• The lobule (earlobe)ƒ
• External auditory canalƒ
• Short, curved tube filled with ceruminous glands

• ƒ Tympanic membrane (eardrum)ƒ
• Thin connective tissue membrane that vibrates in response to soundƒ
• Transfers sound energy to the middle ear ossiclesƒ
• Boundary between outer and middle ears

• A small, air-filled, mucosa-lined cavity ƒ
• Flanked laterally by the eardrumƒ
• Flanked medially by the oval and round windowsƒ
• Pharyngotympanic tube – connects the middle ear to the nasopharynxƒ
• Equalizes pressure in the middle ear cavity with the external air pressure

• The tympanic cavity contains three small bones: the malleus, incus, and stapesƒ
• Transmit vibratory motion of the eardrum to the oval window

• Tortuous channels worming their way through the temporal boneƒ
• Contains the vestibule, the cochlea, and the semicircular canalsƒ
• Filled with perilymph

• ƒ Series of membranous sacs within the bony labyrinthƒ
• Filled with a potassium-rich fluid

• Three canals that each define two-thirds of a circle and lie in the three planes of space ƒ
• Membranous semicircular ducts line each canalƒ
• The ampulla is the swollen end of each canal and it houses equilibrium receptors ƒ
• These receptors respond to angular movements of the head

• ƒ A spiral, conical, bony chamber that:ƒ
• Extends from the anterior vestibuleƒ
• Contains the organ of Corti (hearing receptor)ƒ
• The cochlear branch of nerve VIII runs from the organ of Corti to the brain

• Sound vibrations beat against the eardrumƒ
• The eardrum pushes against the ossicles, which presses fluid in the inner ear against the oval and round windowsƒ
• This movement sets up shearing forces that pull on hair cellsƒ
• Moving hair cells stimulates the cochlear nerve that sends impulses to the brain

Superior Oblique

Cones

Rods are our dim-light and peripheral vision receptors. They are more numerous and far more sensitive to light than cones are, but they do not provide sharp images or color vision. This is why colors disappear and the edges of objects appear fuzzy in dim light and at the edges of our visual field

The equilibrium receptors in the semicircular canals and vestibule are collectively called the vestibular apparatus. The receptors in the vestibule monitor linear acceleration and the position of the head with respect to gravity. Because gravity is constant, this is sometimes called our sense of static equilibrium. The semicircular canals monitor changes in head rotation, sometimes called our sense of dynamic equilibrium.

The cochlear duct (of the cochlea) houses the receptor organ of hearing, called the spiral organ or the organ of Corti. It responds to fluid movement (vibration) in the cochlea generated by the tympanic membrane and transmitted by the middle ear ossicles.

Inner Ear

the Inner Ear

• ƒ The route of sound to the inner ear follows this pathway:ƒ
• Outer ear – pinna, auditory canal, eardrumƒ
• Middle ear – malleus, incus, and stapes to the oval windowƒ
• Inner ear – scalas vestibuli and tympani to the cochlear duct ƒ
• Stimulation of the organ of Cortiƒ Generation of impulses in the cochlear nerve
• Trophic Level
• a category of living things defined by how it gains its energy; the first tropic level contains autotrophs, and each higher level contains heterotrophs

an organism that uses the Sun's energy and raw materials to make its own food; a producer

in a food chain or food web, an organism that relies directly on autotrophs for its source of energy; organisms at the second tropic level

in a food chain or food web, an organism that relies on primary consumers for its principal source of energy; organisms at the third trophic level

an organism that is incapable of making its own food, and so must feed on other organisms to gain energy

the process by which green plants and some other organisms use solar energy, carbon dioxide, and water to produce carbohydrates

the process by which cells break down glucose into carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy

the process by which non-photosynthetic organisms convert inorganic chemicals to organic compounds without solar energy

an organism that can synthesize organic compounds from inorganic chemicals without using solar energy

a representation of the feeding relationships among organisms in an ecosystem

• -Women grouped togehter for a long period of time in dormitories tend to have synchronized menstrual cycles
• -College women who have sex often have menstrual cycles that are less variable in length than women who are virgins

• *Highly coordinated series of endocrine events that results in ovulation from a single follicle and preparation of uterus to receive embryo
• *Cycle driven by the activity of hypothalamic GnRH pulse generator and surge center
• *LH and FSH induce steroid secretion by the ovaries with structural changes in the ovaries and the uterine tissues

• 1.1st day of phase
• 2.lasts 5 days
• 3.day 6-14
• 4.Day 14 (14 days before next mesntruation)
• 5. Day 15-28

-4-5 days (can be 6)

• -Rapid growth of ovarian follicles
• -Days 6 to 14
• -Ovarian follicles continue growth that began during the menstrual phase resulting in estradiol production which supports the growth of endometrium

• -14 days before next menstruation
• -14 to 28 or 16-30
• -If fertilization doesnt occur the OVUM disintegrates
• -If it does occur then the embryo implants in the uterine lining

• -15-28
• -Corpus Luteum formed from the wall of the ovulated follicle secretes progesterone and estradiol which prepares the uterus for implantation of the embryo

• -Corpus Luteum of previous cycle disintegrates DRAMATICALLY DECREASES PROGESTERONE AND ESTROGEN which cause the stratum functionalis to disintegrate
• -33-83mL of blood usually lost, but up to 267mL can be lost.

• -FSH,LH, ESTROGEN, and PROGESTERONE are all low
• -small tertiary follicles present

-FSH, LH , and ESTROGEN moderately elevated

• -PROGESTERONE stays low through menstrual phase
• -Some tertiary follicles now larger

• -Rapid growth of ovarian follicles
• -Ovarian follicles continue growth that began during the menstrual phase resulting in estradiol production which causes growth of the uterine endometrium)
• -Estradiol secreted by developing follicles which causes endometrium to thicken during follicular phase

-FSH causes some teritary follicles to increase in size

• -Estrogen levels progressively rise and peak on these days
• -Leads to POSITIVE FEEDBACK and an increased GnRH which in 2 to 3 days produces LH surge with smaller rise in FSH
• -Small rise in FSH could be because the ovary secreting hormones INHIBIN and FOLLISTATIN inhibit the release of FSH and this counter the stimulatory effect of GnRH

• -1 Graafian follicle emerges and the rest become atretic

-Ovulation of ovum from Graafian follicle

• -Estrogen levels drop rapidly
• -Graafian follicles SWITCH from delta 5 (estrogen prod) to delta 4(progesterone prod) in response to LH surge
• -Progesterone levels begin to rise just before ovulation

• -induces resumption of meiosis in oocyte in Graafian follicle
• -lasts 36 hours and ovulation occurs 9-12 hours after surge

• -MITTELSCHMERZ: pain in abdomen
• -Basal Body temp decreases slightly at ovulation. then rises during luteal phase of cycle
• -Cervical mucus watery and stringy
• -Spinnbarheit: threadability of mucus
• -Fern test: mucus exhibits a fern-like pattern of crystals of sodium and potassium chloride when dried
• -HIGH LH levels in blood
• -HIGH PROGESTERONE levels in blood show in luteal phase and that ovulation has occured
• -PREGNANEDIOL is a breakdown of progesterone that is detected in urine during luteal phase

• -Last 14 days from ovulation to menstruation
• -Generous production of progesterone and estrogen furing the luteal phase cause the endometrium to become thick and spongy and its glands secrete nutrients that can be used by embryo if there is implantation
• -Secretory Phase
• -corpus luteum is formed from the wall of the follicle that released the ovum
• -Corpus luteum secretes profesterone and estradiol
• -(day 24) the corpus luteum disintegrates and progesterone and estrogen drop rapidly
• -Onset of menstruation
• -High ratio of progesterone to moderate estrogen INHIBITS GnRH which INHIBITS LH and FSH production
• -LH levels are low but still can maintain the function of the corpus luteum
• -INHIBITION of FSH restricts follicular development

at L2 vertebra

nerves inferior to spinal cord

attach to foramen magnum and coccygeal ligament

contains CSF in subarachnoid space

between dura and vertebra

• cell bodies
• interneurons
• synapses

• myelinated axons
• up and down spinal cord

sensory

motor cell bodies

motor tracts

sensory tract

peripheral motor neuron

peripheral sensory neuron

• connect sensory and motor neurons
• connect brain and periphery

• somatic motor
• cell bodies of motor neurons

• interneurons
• terminal axon - sensory neurons

bundles of neurons (axons) in CNS

crossover to other side of body

• sensory neurons to brain
• from peripheral nerve

• motor neurons from brain
• to peripheral nerve

• touch, pressure, vibration, proprioception
• to post-central gyrus, parietal lobe in the cerebrum
• Synapse at medulla and thalamus

• ascending tract to thalamus
• pain, temp

• Ascending tract to cerebellum
• Proprioception

• descending pyramidal tract
• motor for skeletal muscles
• decussation in pyramids
• anterior corticospinal and lateral corticospinal tract
• Synapse with peripheral motor neuron at anterior horn

• Spinal nerve root
• sensory neurons from periphery
• cell bodies of sensory neurons
• dorsal root ganglion

• Spinal nerve roots
• Motor neurons to periphery
• axon of motor neurons
• Cell bodies of motor neurons
• anterior horn

• Peripheral sensory neuron
• receptor
• axon
• dorsal root ganglion
• into posterior horn

• 2nd neuron of the sensory pathway
• synapse at thalamus

• neuron above thalamus
• goes into the brain center

• 2 neurons for skeletal
• 3 neurons for autonomic

• Descending tract
• cell body at anterior horn of gray matter

• cell body in anterior horn
• goes through ventral root

• pulmonary ventilation
• external respiration
• internal respiration

exchange of gases between environment and lungs (alveoli) by breathing (inhalation and exhalation)

exchange of gases between lungs and blood (oxygen diffuses from alveoli to surrounding blood capillaries/carbon dioxide diffuses from surrounding blood capillaries to alveoli)

exchange of gases between blood and cells/tissues (oxygen diffuses from blood capillaries to body cells/carbon dioxide diffuses from body cells to blood capillaries)

use of oxygen by cell to catabolize nutrients and release energy; produces carbon dioxide as a waste

• nasal cavities
• pharynx
• larynx
• sinuses

• trachea
• bronchi
• lungs
• bronchioles
• alveoli

• receives air from nasal and oral cavity
• receives food and water from oral cavity

connects ears to pharynx

• nasopharynx
• oropharynx
• laryngopharynx

voice box

Adam's apple

opening between vocal cords that closes with swallowing

leaf-shaped cartilage that covers opening to larynx with swallowing, preventing food and liquids from entering respiratory tract

wind pipe

• primary bronchi:first two divisions at distal end of trachea that branch to enter each lung at notch called hilum
• secondary bronchi: branch from primary bronchi to each lobe of lung
• tertiary bronchi: branch from secondary bronchi
• bronchioles:branch from tertiary bronchi; no cartilage walls; have smooth muscle
• terminal bronchioles: branch from bronchioles
• Alveoli...

• air sacs at end of terminal bronchioles
• where diffusion of O2 and CO2 occurs
• produce surfactant

prevent collapse of alveoli

alveoli

• where gas diffusion takes place
• contain bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli
• in thoracic cavity

two left lobes and three right lobes

the heart sits on the left side

cavity between two pleural cavities that contain heart, large blood vessels, lymph nodes, esophagus, and trachea

inhalation/inspiration

• air is drawn into lungs
• diaphragm contracts and drops down towards abdominal cavity to enlarge thoracic cavity
• lung tissue expands
• internal and external intercostals contract pulling rib case up and out

exhalation/expiration

• air is expelled from the lungs
• diaphragm relaxes
• intercostals relax

gas required by cells for catabolism of nutrients and energy production that must be continually supplied by respiratory system

gas that is a waste product of cell metabolism that must be continually removed by respiratory system

carried towards body cells/tissues in blood (hemoglobin molecule on RBC)

carried away from the body cells/tissues in blood (hemoglobin molecule on RBC)

• involuntary control always overrides voluntary control
• chemoreceptors in carotid and aortic bodies respond to decreasing oxygen levels in circulating blood

medulla

cerebral cortex

• increased air enters alveoli as both rate and depth increases
• Lungs take in too much oxygen and eliminate too much carbon

decreased air enters alveoli

lungs take in too much oxygen and eliminate too much carbon dioxide making blood alkaline

Carbon dioxide builds up in blood making blood acidic

listening to lungs with stethoscope (assesses breathing quality rather than rate)

rales, rhonchi, wheezing, stridor

abnormal musical sounds heard on inspiration; often called “crackles”

rattling sounds in bronchi due to obstruction or fluid; may be clear with coughing

whistling or musical sound heard during breathing that may indicate partially blocked or narrowed airway (asthma)

high pitched sound on inspiration

normal breathing

difficulty breathing (shortness of breath, painful or labored breathing)

fluid or secretions coughed up from lungs

coughing up blood

lower than normal oxygen in arterial blood

lower than normal oxygen in tissues

group of tests that measure how well lungs inhale and exhale air/how efficiently lungs transfer gases (CO₂ and O₂) in blood

patient breathes into mouthpiece connected to instrument called spirometer; records amount and rate of air patient breathes in and out over a period of time

muscular tube from mouth to anus

moves substances

• mucus membrane w/ goblet cells
• microvilli (absorption) in small intestines

• connect tissue below mucosa
• blood vessels and nerves
• mucus secreting glands in small intestines

• smooth muscle - peristalis
• mixes food w/ digestive juices and propels it thru system
• three layers in stomach

serious membrane forming peritoneum in abdominopelvic cavity

• mucosa
• submucosa
• muscularis
• serosa

serious membrane lining abdominopelvic cavity, folds back to cover organ in cavity

allows organs to slide over each other w/o friction

has blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, nerves

• mesentery- posterior  wall to small intestine
• mesocolon- posterior wall to colon
• greater omentum- lower border of stomach, loops back to transverse colon
• lesser omentum- between stomach & liver

enzyme that mixes food with salivary from salivary glands to break down

begins chemical digestion of carbs & starches

moves food from mouth towards throat for swallowing

• tongue pushes bolus of food into pharynx,
• uvula/soft palate raise to keep food out of nasal cavity
• tongue raises to seal off oral cavity
• epiglottis covers trachea to keep food out of respiratory tract

• nasopharynx
• oropharynx
• laryngopharynx

esophagus

lubricates swallowed food, moves it by gravity (peristalsis) to stomach, no digestion

esophageal hiatus

between esophagus & stomach

• rugae expand (storage)
• mixing of food by stomach muscle
• cells secrete substance that form gastric juices
• secretes mucus to lubricate/protect structure

• stomach-
• digesting proteins

• highly acidic semi-liquid material
• stomach forms this,
• result of mechanical/chemical digestion

small intestine

• dueodenum
• jejunum
• ileum- ileocecal valve

• secrete mucus to protect from acidic chyme from stomach
• most digestion occurs here
• lining secretes enzymes that digest protein and carbs

duodenum of small intestine

• maltase
• sucrose
• lactase

digest starches/carbs into sugar

trypsin

digest proteins into amino acids

digest fat to fatty acid and glycerol

digest nucleic acids

• increase surface area for absorption
• contain- blood vessels to absorb digested nutrients
• lacteals to absorb digested fat

• cecum- pouch
• ileocecal valve & vermiform appendix
• ascending colon (right abdomen)
• transverse colon
• descending colon (left abdomen)
• sigmoid colon
• rectum
• anus

• secrete mucus but no digestive enzymes
• reabsorbs water from feces
• stored undigested food (feces)
• INVOLUNTARY muscle of large intestines propel solid waste towards rectum

voluntary sphincter relaxes

• Vitamin K & B
• destroyed by antibiotics

• parotid glands (near ear)
• submandibular/sub maxillary glands (lower jaw)
• sublingual glands (under tongue)

salivary amylase

• chemical digestion of carbs/starches
• keep teeth clean
• antibodies and enzyme lysozyme to control bacterial in mouth

control bacteria in mouth

liver

• produce bile
• salts to amulsifty fat to be absorbed
• stores glucose as glycogen (released when blood glucose dropes)
• modifies fat for use in body

• vitamins
• iron

• 2 ducts of liver that merge together
• bile leaves here

• albumin
• globulins
• clotting factors

• worn out RBC
• eliminates waste products (bilirubin) in bile- making the feces color

• urea- waste product of protein metabolism & release into blood stream
• so kidneys can eliminate it in urin

harmful substances from blood (alcohol, drugs)

gallbladder

• store bile- draining into hepatic duct, flows to gallbladder through cystic duct
• releases bile when cyme enters small intestines

cystic duct merges w/ common hepatic duct

pancreas

exocrine secretions leave pancreas here

pancreatic duct merges into this

secrete digestive enzymes and sodium bicarbonate into small intestines to neutralize acidic chyme

chemical digestion of starches/carbs to sugars

chemical digestion of proteins to amino acids

chemical digestion of fat to fatty acids and glycerol

chemical digestion of nucleic acids, RNA, DNA

• produce hormones- insulin & glucagon
• regulates sugar

• Two kidneys
• two ureters
• bladder
• urethra

• Form urine to excrete waste products 
• regulate the volume, electrolytes and pH of blood and tissue fluid

Cushion and help hold in place

An indentation on the medial sides of the kidneys, where renal arteries enter and where renal veins and ureter emerge

Outer tissue layer, made of renal corpuscles and convoluted tubules

Inner tissue layer, made of loops of henle and collecting tubules

A cavity formed by the expanded end of the ureter within the kidney at the hilus

• Extensions around the papillae of the pyramids
• collect urine

• In nephron
• consists of a glomerulus surrounded by a bowmans capsule

Capillary network between an afferent arteriole and an efferent arteriole

• The expanded end of a renal tubule that encloses the glomerulus
• inner layer made of podocytes
• has pores
• very permeable
• contains renal filtrate

Consists of the proximal convoluted tubule, loop of henle, distal convolute tubule, and collecting tubule

Unites to form papillary ducts that empty urine into the calyces of the renal pelvis

arise from the efferent arteriole and surround all parts of the renal tubule

• abd aorta
• renal artery
• interlobar arteries
• arcuate arteries
• interlobular arteries
• afferent arterioles
• glomeruli
• efferent arterioles
• peritubular capillaries
• interlobular veins
• arcuate veins
• Interlobar veins
• renal vein
• inferior vena cava

• coordinates judgement and impulse control nad planning
• motor cortex (how we move)
• LOBES(A)

• responsible for sensation (temp, pressure, pain)
• sensory cortex
• does NOT process smell
• LOBES(B)

• where visual info is processed
• visual cortex
• LOBES(C)

• hearing and tied to speech
• auditory cortex
• LOBES(D)