biofinal.txt

reproduce by itself

Offspring that inherit genes from one parent

Offspring that inherit genes of both parents combined

• Neucleic Acid(macromolecule)
• Nucleotide = monomer unit
• deoxyribose sugar
• nitrogen base phosphate group

Structure of DNA

• Thing and stringy, can't see under microscope
• DNA wrapped loosly arond protein
• As a cell enters mitosis the chromatin condenses into chromosomes

when chromatids seperate the individual strands are called chromosomes

Chromosomes that determine an individuals gender

any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome

two identically joined copies of the same chromosome

where the two chromatids attach at the center

The process that a cell goes through when doubling

• NONDIVIDING stafe
• -carries out normal metabolic processes and functions

• Normal day activities of the cell
• (g stands for gap)

Growth phase

• Genetic material duplicates (DNA replication)
• (S stands for synthesis)

• Growth phase
• cell prepares to divide

Mitotic phase

Nucleus and duplicated chromosomes divide into two "daughter" neclei

Process by which the cytoplasm is split in order to form two seperate cells

Body cells

• contain centrioles (only in animal cells)
• release microtubles to for the mitotic spindle

• Prophase - pro = before
• Metaphase - meta - middle
• anaphase - apart
• telphase

PMAT

• -Neucleolus goes away
• -Nuclear envelope breaks up
• -Spindle forming
• -Chromosome consisting of two sister cromatids

• -Spindle microtubles
• -2 chromatids

-Identical daughter chromosomes

• -Chromosomes uncoiling
• -Neuclear envelope forming
• -Cell dividing into two

• -Disease caused by the severe disruption of the mechanisms that normally control the cell cycle
• -Uncontrolled Cell division

Halts Cell Division

• Abnormal new growth of tissue
• Types:
• -Benign
• -Malignant

• NON-cancerous
• -They CANNOT spread or invade other parts of your body
• -They CAN be dangerous i they press vital organs, such as your brain

Cancer cells can migrate and form tumors elsewhere in the body

The spread of cancer beyond their original site

Injures or Destroys cells in the area being treated by damaging their DNA, making it impossible for more growth and divide

Chemicals that distrupt Cell division

• -same chromosome structure
• -carries the same sequence of genes

• 2 sets of chromosomes
• -one from mom
• -one from dad

• One set of chromosomes
• -Combination of chromosomes from mom and dad

the representations of a chromosome

Sex cells (germ cells)

A cell formed by two gametes

• Fraternal twins
• -twins who develop from two eggs fertilized by two different sperm

• Identical twins
• -Soon after one sperm fertilized one egg to
• form the zygote, the embryo splits to form
• two identical embryos

• -A form of monozygotic twins
• -Occurs when the zygote of identical twins
• fails to completely separate

• Produces 4 non-identical gametes
• -Cell Division
• Stage one
• -Chromosome reduction divison
• Stage two
• -Division

• The failure of the chromosomes to properly
• segregate during meiotic or mitotic anaphase,
• resulting in daughter cells with abnormal numbers of chromosomes
• -Down Syndrome
• -Turner Syndrome
• -Klinefelter Syndrome

• Mental Retardation
• - Characteristic Facial Appearance
• - Increased risk for heart defects (~50% have a heart defect), digestive problems,
• leukemia, Alzheimer disease, hearing problems, hypothyroidism
• - Life Expectancy - 55 years

-presence of only one complete X chromosome and no Y chromosome

An abnormal condition in a male characterized by two X chromosomes and one Y chromosome

• -used for women 35 or
• older
• -earlier Test: 10-12 wks
• -increased risk for
• miscarriage: about 2%

• Used for women 35 or
• older
• -Test: 16-18 wks
• -Increased risk for
• miscarriage: less than 1%

• exchange of genetic material between
• homologous chromosomes (tetrad)

group of 4 chromosomes

The structure of DNA in a shape of a spiral that consists of paired polynucleotides

something that makes up DNA

• Purines-double ring
• -Adenine
• -Guanine
• Pyrimidines
• -Cytosine
• -Thymine

In RNA or DNA that holds a polynucleotide chain together

Not parallel

Replication of DNA

A short segment of DNA that contains the instructions for building a protein

• Location of a gene on a chromosome
• - the genes address

Variation of a gene

Genetic make up seq. Of DNA

The organisms physical traits

Messenger ribonucleic acid

Ribosomal RNA

Transfer rna

The collection of All of the genes in an organism

Forms peptide bonds between amino acids in order to for polypeptides

• Step 1- DNA unzips
• Step 2- form the mRNA strand

The process that uses the codons in the mRNA molecules to specify the sequence of amino acid in a polypeptide chain

Addition of nucleotides to form the complementary DNA strand

Adds RNA nucleotides that are complementary with the DNA bases of the gene sequence

Unzips the DNA

Three consecutive nucleotides on mRNA that code for a specific amino acid

the complimentary sequence of the codon sequence

The set of bases and the amino acids they code for

• Initiation
• -AUG

• Termination
• -UAG, UAA, or UGA

A permanent change in the DNA sequence of a gene

• Mutations that effect one nucleotide
• Types
• -Substitution
• -Insertion
• -Deletion

Taking one nucleotide out of the original DNA and replacing it with a different nucleotide

Adding a single nucleotide

Taking one nucleotide out of the DNA seq.

A mutation that codes for the same amino acid

• A mutation that shifts the "reading" frame of the genetic message by inserting or deleting a nucleotide
• Types:
• -Insertion
• -Deletion

• Involve changes in many nucleotides
• Types:
• -Deletion
• -Duplication
• -Inversion
• -Translocation

• Refers to all ptovesses that act on DNA and modify the expression of genes
• Two main processes
• -Chromatin Remodeling
• -DNA Methylation

Alternate forms of a gene

• Both alleles for a trait are the same
• eg. TT or tt

• Both alleles are different
• e.g. Tt

• When only one of the two different alleles in a heterozygous individual appears to affect the trait
• e.g. T

• The allele that seems to be suppressed by the dominant allele in the heterozygous state
• e.g. t

• Genetic Makeup of a gene
• e.g. TT or Tt or tt

• Observable Trait (gene product)
• e.g. Tall or Short

If allowed to self-pollinate, they would produce offspring identical to themselves.

The offspring of two different true - breeding varieties

The two alleles for a character separate during the formatino of gametes

• -A mating event between two individuals involving one gene
• -Determines the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring based upon the genotypes of the parents

Breeds an individual of unkown genotype, but dominant phenotype with a homozygous reccessive individual in order to figure out whethere the parent is homozygous dominant or heterozygous god a given trait

parental generation

Offspring of the P generation

The offspring of a cross between two individuals from the F₁ generation

-Genes located on different chromosomes will be inherited indipenditly of each other

• Cross between two individuals that includes two completely different traits
• -Each type of gene should have a unique leteter symbol

Both Alleles are dominant and the heterozygote shows an intermediate phenotype

When heterozygous for two dominant traits, the individual expresses both traits

There are more than two alleles available in the gene pool out of which only two will be inherited.

A substance taht can trigger an immune response causing the production of antibodies as part of the body's defence against infection and disease.

A protein that is found on red blood cells. If the Rh factor protein is present on the cells, a person is Rh-positive. If there is no Rh factor protein, the person is Rh-negative.

All chromosomes except the sex chromosomes

Chromosomes that deterime the gender of an organism

The location of a gene on a sex chromosome, typically on the X chromosome. (X-linkage)

Traits controlled by multiple genes

• Only one defective gene is necessary for the person to have the disorder
• -Every affected individual has at lease one affected parent.

Both copies of the gene need to be defective in order to have the disorder

Tt(carries a defective gene but does not have the disorder)

• A diagram that shows the pattern of inheritance of a gene in a family
• -An individual who exhibits the trait in question is represented by a filled in symbol

• Main engery carrier
• -Verry good at energy transfer
• -Engergy Currency
• -Not good at storing engergy

• Building or breaking-down a large molecule
• Energy is required to for bonds within a molecule.
• Energy is released when bonds are broken in a molecule.

Moving a muscle protein

Pumping solutes across a membrane

• Process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy (carbohydrates).
• 6CO₂ + 6H₂O --> C₆H₁₂O₆+ 6 O₂

The area of the leaf where chloroplasts are concentrated

Pores in the leaf in which carbon dioxide enters and oxygen leaves

• Xylem
• -Transports water form the roots to the leaves
• Phloem
• -Transports sugar from the leaves to the roots

A structure that makes photosynthesis happen

where the calvin cycle takes place in the chloroplasts

The thylakoid is in the chloroplast

are in the chloroplasts and store energy

A pigment is something that changes a plants color

Turns the chloroplasts green

The smaller the cells the more cells in your body.

When the plant cells are dividing they form a cell plate.

• Forming Secondary Tumors
• -The spread of cancer beyond their original site.

21

• Meiosis produces 4 non-identical gametes
• Mitosis forms two identical somatic cells

• James Watson and Francis Crick
• - Were trying to build a three-dimensional model of DNA
• -They used Rosalind Franklin's x-ray diffraction picture
• -Determind the structure of DNA was a double helix

• Nucleic Acid
• -Deoxyribose Sugare
• -Phosphate group
• -Nitrogen base