When minerals react w/ air & water to form new minerals
chemical stability
measure of a substance tendency to retain its chemical identity rather than reacting spontaneously to become a different chemical
physical weathering
fractured large rock into smaller pieces which are more easily transported & eroded
strike
compass direction of a rock as it intersects with a horizontal surface
dip
measured at right angles to the strike, is the amount of tilting angle at which the bed inclines from the horizontal
geologic maps
represents the rock formation exposed at earths surface
folding a common form of deformation in?
layered rocks - rarely stay horizontal
syncline
downfold into trought
limbs
2 sides of a fold
basin
synclinal structure, bowl shaped depression of rock layers that beds dip radially toward central point
dome
anticlinal structure, broad circular or oval bulge of rock layers
relative humidity
amount of water vapor in air, relative to saturation of air
rain shadow
areas of low rainfall on downwind slopes
what are the 3 main types of tetonic force
tensional, compressive, shearing
tensional
in brittle crust, produce normal faulting my split apart, causing a rift valley
compressive
when 2 plates collide, crust can be compressed across a wide zone. fold & thrust belt
shearing
long transform in faults are rarely straight. faults have bends & jogs -> change tectonic forces. cause secondary faulting & folding
recharge
infiltration of water into any subsurface formation, often from the surface by rain/melthing snow
what did william smith discover
fossils can help to order relative ages of sedimentary rock
principle of faunal succession
layers of sedimentary rocks in outcrop contain fossils in a defininte sequence. the same sequence can be found at other location
ground water
mass of water stored under earths surface
porosity
% of rock, soil or sedminets total volume that is taken up by pores
aquifier
bed that store & transmit groundwater in sufficient quantity to supply wells
unsaturated zone
level at which the pores contain some air and are not completely filled with water
groundwater table
boundary between 2 zones
saturated zone
level at which the pored of the soil or rock are completely filled with water
reservoir
each place that stores water
hydrologic cycle
cyclical movement of water from ocean -> atmosphere by evaporation -> surface by rain -> streams by runoff & groundwater -> ocean
droughts
periods of months/years when precipitation is lower than normal
foliated rock 4 main criteria
1. size of crystals
2. nature of foliation
3. depree that minerals are segregated in color bands
4. metamorphic grade
principle of original horizontality
sediments are deposited under influence of gravity as nearly horizontal beds. if we find folded/faulted the strata layers were deformed by tectonic forces after sediment deposit
principle of superposition
each sediment layer of undisturbed sequence is younger than one beneath it & older than one above
suspension
sediment/rocks suspended in stream
water table
barrier between saturated & unsaturated water
weathered
general process that breaks rocks into fragments by combination of physical fracturing & chemical decomposition
subduction
sinking of oceanic plate under overriding plate at ca convergent plate boundary. overriding plate maybe oceanic or continental
rock rall
very rapid movement in which newly detached individual block of rock plummet suddenly in free fall from a cliff or steep mountain side
saltation
an intermittent jumping motion or sand or fine sediment alon a steam bed in which grain are suck up into the flow by turbulent eddies move with the current for a short distance & then fall back to the bottom
plunge
a fold whose axis is not horizontal but dip
grading
fine particles settle to bottom & heavy at top. occurs in slow moving water
inverse grading
heavy particles at bottom & small at top. occurs in fast moving bodies of water
longshore current
a current that flows parallel to the shoreline, the summed longshore components of water motion of waves that break. obliquely with respect to the shore
bedding
formation of parallel layer of sediment as particles settle to the bottom of the sea, a river or a land surface
perched
the groundwater table in a shallow upper surface of an aquifier that is perched above & separated from the main body of groundwater by aquilude
plastic
total of all the small movement of the ice crystals that make up a glacier, resulting in a large movement of ice
half-life
time required for half of the original number of radioactive atoms in an element to decay
weathering
one of major geological processes in rock cycle, shapes earths surface/alters rock materials, converting all kinds of rock into sediment -> soil
4 key factos that control rock fragmentation & decay
1. properties of parent rock
2. climate
3. presence/absence of soil
4. length of time rocks are exposed to atmosphere
mass wasting
all the processes by which masses of rock & soil move downhill under the influence of gravity
erosion
set of processes that loosen soil & rock & move them downhill/strem where they are depisted as sedimentary layers.
what 4 precipitations cause decay & breakdown
rain, wind, ice & snow
what are the processes that loosen & transport soil/rock down?
erosion & mass wasting
outcrop
basic source of deformation information where bedrock that underlies surface is exposed
what is an important clue to overall structure of outsrop
orientation of layers
what described the orientation of a rock layer exposed at an outcrop
strike & dip
what are the 4 types of metamorphism
regional, contact, seafloor, shock
regional metamorphism
caused by high pressures & temperatures that extend over large regions
contact metamorphism
changes in minerology & texture of rock resulting from the heat & pressure in small area
seafloor metamorphism
associated with mid ocean ridges in which changes in chemical composition produced by fluid transport
shock metamorphism
occurs when minerals are subject to high pressure & temperature of shock waves when meteor collides with earth
metamorphism p-t
history of changes in conditions of pressure & temperature
what are 3 principal factors of metamorphism
1. internal heat of earth
2. pressure
3. fluid composition
push rocks at earths surface down to great depths subjecting them to high pressure & temperature
role of temperature in metamorphism
heat effects chemical composition, minerology, & texture.
geothermal gradient
increase of temperature with increasing depth
role of pressure in metamorphism
confining & directed
confining pressure
general force applied equally in all directions
directed pressure
force exerted in a part direction pressure, like temp increases with depth
role of fluids in metamorphism
metasomatism
metasomatism
change in a rocks bulk chemical composition by fluid transport of chemical components into or out of rock
Reverse thrust fault
Plunging fold
Left lateral strike slip
Horizontal fold
Normal Faulting
overturned folds
oblique slip fault
asymmetrical folds
tensional tectonics
normal faults w/ hih dip angles in upper crust, flatten w/ depth
compressive tectonics
compression on continental crust on thrust faults with low dip angle
shearing tectonics
shearing continental crust on nearly vertical strike-slip fault
plunging anticline, plunging syncline
right lateral strike slip
Ge
symmetrical folds
Which of the following is/are most susceptible to chemical weather by dissolution?
A. calcite
Frost wedging is the major weathering process contributing to the formation of which regolith material?
B. talus slopes
Clay minerals, silica (SiO2), and dissolved potassium bicarbonate in the soil water are products of which process?
D. chemical weathering of orthoclase feldspar
What two factors speed up rates of chemical reaction and weathering in rocks and soils?
D. warm temps; very moist
In which area are pedocal soils mostly likely to be found?
D. a moderately dry to semiarid grassland such as the western Great Plains
The finely divided, red, brown, and yellow soil-coloring minerals originate by what process?
B. precipitation of iron oxides and during the chemical weathering process
Which of the following statements about laterites or tropical rainforest is true?
A. laterite soils readily compact and hardened when dried and exposed to sunlight
Which one of the following is an important, mechanical weathering process for enlarging fractures and extending them deeper into large boulder and bedrock?
A. frost wedging
Which of the following best describes sets of fractures in relatively fresh bedrock, such as granite, that are roughly parallel to the land surface?
A. sheeting fractures
under similar war, moist climatic conditions, what would basalt and gabbro generally have higher chemical weathering rates than rhyloite and granite?
A. the ferromagnesian minerals in the gabbro and basalt are subject to oxidation and chemical weathering
Which one of the following statements concerning mechanical weathering is not true?
C. involves a major change in the mineral composition of the weathered material
Which one of the following statements best describes erosion?
C. movement of weathered rock and regolith toward the base of a slope
Assuming that water filling a crack in a rock undergoes cycles of freezing and melting. Which of the following statements is true?
A. water expands as it freezes, causing the crack walls to be pushed apart
What mineral particles are the dominant coloring agent in reddish, brownish, and yellowish soils?
A. dust-sized grains of iron oxides
Lateritic soils form under what climatic conditions?
A. warm and moist as in the wet, tropical forest
____, a common mineral found in igneous rocks, is the most abundant mineral in detrital sedimentary rocks.
C. quartz
Sandstone (Match the sediment with the appropriate rock name.)
B. sand
Shale (Match the sediment with the appropriate rock name.)
C. all clay sediment
Mudstone (Match the sediment with the appropriate rock name.)
C. clay and fine silt
Conglomerate (Match the sediment with the appropriate rock name.)
B. gravel
Which of the following best describes bedded gypsm and halite?
C. evaporates; chemical, sedimentary rocks
____ sandstone contains abundant feldspar, suggesting that the sand was derived by weathering and erosion of granitic bedrock.
C. arkosic
What is the main difference between a conglomerate and a sedimentary breccia?
D. breccia clasts are angular; conglomerate clasts are rounded
Which statement concerning sedimentary rocks is not true?
B. they were originally deposited at depth below the bottom of the sea
____ is not a common cementing agent for sandstones.
D. fluorite
Which of the following applies to the basic constituents of halite, gypsum, and sylvite?
C. transported as dissolved ions; deposited by evaporation
Flint, chert, and jasper are microcrystalline forms of ____
D. quartz
Which of the following sedimentary rocks would you expect to have originally been deposited by fast-moving streams?
A. conglomerate
Detrital grains of which minerals are extremely rare in detrital sediments? Why?
A. calcites; it is soft and relatively soluble
Which of the following sedimentary features would typically be found in shales but not in sandstones?
A. mudcracks
____ is the most common type of chemical sedimentary rock.
C. limestone
Which of the following sedimentary features can each be used to determine paleocurrent directions?
B. ripple marks and cross stratification
Coal beds originate in -
D. freshwater costal swamps and bogs
Which of the following forms is at the highest grade of regional metamorphism?
a. schist
b. hornsfel
c. phyllite
d. slate
??
What platy, parallel, mineral grains are the most visual aspect of foliated metamorphic rocks?
D. micas
What major change occurs during metamorphism of limestone to marble?
A. calcite grains grow larger and increase in size
Which low-grade metamorphic rock, composed of extremely fine-sized mica and other mineral grains, typically exhibits well-developed rock cleavage?
A. slate
_____ is a strong, parallel alignment of coarse mice flakes and/or of different mineral bands in a metamorphic rock.
D. foliation
Which of the following best describes the conditions of contact metamorphism?
A. pressures are fairly low, the rock is in the upper part of the crust, and heat is supplied from a nearby magma body
____ forms from the metamorphism of limestone or dolostone
D. marble
___ is characterized by segregation of light-and dark-colored minerals into thin layers or bands.
B. granitic gneiss
Which of the following lists the rocks in order of increasing grain size and increasing grade of metamorphism?
B. slate, phyllite, schist
What is the major source of heat for contact metamorphism?
B. heat from a nearby magma body
In which setting would regional metamorphism be most likely?
C. at great depths in the crust where two continents are colliding
An Unconformity is a buried -
D. surface of erosion separating younger strata above from older strata below
The radioactive isotopes Uranium-238, Uranium-235, and Thorium-232 eventually decay to different, stable, daughter isotopes of -
a. lead
b. aragon
c. iron
d. strontium
a. lead
What fundamental concept states that in a horizontal sequence of conformable sedimentary strata, each higher bed is younger than the bed below it?
B. law of superposition
The ____ is the idea or concept that ancient life forms succeeded each other in a definite, evolutionary pattern and that the contained assemblage of fossils can determine geologic ages of strata?
D. principle of faunal succession
____ refers to the process of fossilization where the internal cavities and pores of the original organism are filled with precipitated mineral matter.
A. petrification
What is the age of the earth accepted by most scientists today?
D. 4.5 billion years
Rocks near the surface deform mostly as brittle. T or F
True
Beds always dip in the direction of younger beds. T or F
True
Faults are clearly an example of brittle strain. T or F
True
Folds and thrust faults are caused by tension in the earths crust. T or F
False
Most sedimentary rocks were originally deposited as flat-lying beds. T or F
True
The difference in the arrival time of the P and S wave is related to-
D. the distance to the earthquake from the seismic station
Which one of the following is consistent with deformation by folding?
A. the crust is shortened perpendicular to the fold axis
A ___ is a prominent ridge formed by different erosion of a resistant layer of dopping strata.
B. hogback
A ____ is a flat topped hill that is usually an indication of flat lying strata.
A. mesa
A sea large wave created by an earthquake is properly called a -
C. tsunami
If a deformed body recovers its original shape as stress is released, it is said to be -
D. elastic
Which of the hollowing would NOT be characteristic of an anticline:
D. horizontal limbs
A structural basin is simply a circular:
A. syncline
The block of material overlying an inclined fault plane is the:
B. hanging wall
If the hanging wall has moved down, the fault is -
B. normal
A bed that dips due east, must strike:
E. north-south
If the surface exposures (map view) of folded beds resemble Avas or horseshoes, then the folds must be:
D. plunging
The San Andreas Fault system can be described as -
B. strike-slip
Geologic structures (faults and folds) are important in oil and gas exploration because -
D. structures can trap oil and gas
A ___ is a fracture in bedrock along with movement has taken place
B. fault
In an overturned fold, the limbs dip -
C. in the same direction
If the fault dips toward the up-thrown block, the fault is-
D. reverse
If a sequence of beds gets younger toward the east, then they must be dipping to the-
A. east
We know what the mantle is made of because-
B. samples of the shallow mantle are brought up in some volcanoes
Show me the Rift Valley of East Africa, and I'll show you a-
C. diverging plate boundary
The Himalayan Mountains formed by-
B. continent-continent convergence
The Red Sea is interpreted as-
D. a flooded rift valley
Most of the world's largest mountain belts were formed in response to-
C. compressional stress
The Basin and Range Province of the western US are characterized by a large number of-
A. fault block mountains
A fold that exposes beds that dip in toward the center of the fold is a-
D. syncline
The low-standing plains between horst-blocks are-
B. graben
According to the concept of ___, "floating" mountains adjust their elevation in response to the erosion by upward buoyancy as surface material is removed.
B. isostasy
The Alps, Himalayas, and Appalachains-
A. are folded mountains
The compass direction formed by the intersection of a dipping surface and a horizontal place is the-
A. strike
Fractures in rock without movement along the fractures are called-
C. joints
Source materials for the sedimentary rocks in the Appalachian Mountains was located to the ____ of the present day mountains.
A. east
The Coast Ranges of Washington, Oregon, and northern California are formed by-
C. volcanoes
The Andres Mountains of South America are an example of mountains formed by-
C. ocean-continental convergence
The Basin and Range topography of western US is related to-
C. stretching the crust
The stable interior of the continent is known as its-
B. craton
The Texas Hill Country and the Ozark Mountains are examples of mountain or hilly terrain formed by-
D. dissection by stream erosion
The core of the Sierra Nevada Mountains and Smoky Mountains exposes-
C. igneous rock
The North American continent has grown progressively-
D. larger by continental accretion
The term Aorogeny refers to-
A. mountain building
The oldest rocks in North America can be found in-
A. Canada
rivers and glaciers get their energy from?
solar energy and the external heat engine
the internal heat engine provides the energy for?
earthquakes
the earths tectonic plates are moved by convection in the?
mantle
all of the earth's oceans floor was created in ?
mid ocean ridges
what feature is found when two oceanic plates converge
trench
compared to oceanic crust, continental crust is
less dense
the deepest earthquakes are
where plates are converging
the himalaya mountains formed
as two continents collided
a rift valley would be founded where tectonic plates are
diverging
the hawaiian islands are
over a hot spot in the mantle
the atomic particle with a positive electrical charge is called the
proton
which of the followings elements would form cations?
iron
the sun's energy is produced by
nuclear fusion
an amoprhous solid is a
glass
the type of chemical bond that is most flexiable is the
metallic
a mineral must be a........
solid
what is an example of something that is not a mineral
wood
what is an example of something that is not a mineral
oil
metallic, glassy, dull, and non metallic are examples of
luster
which property is useful in identifying almost all minerals
hardness
a mineral that breaks into curved irregular fragments is demonstrating
fracture
mafic minerals are rich in
iron and magnesium
a volcanic rock with a mafic composition is called
basalt
an ingneous rock with two different sizes of crystals in it is
porphyritic
sharp angular lava is called
aa
cinder cones
are entirely made of pyroclastic material
the largest volcanoes are
shield volcanoes
the type of volcano made of andesite is
composite volcano
a good example of caldera is
crater lake
a nuee ardante is
a glowing cloud of hot gas and ash
a lava that erupts underwater would have
pillow structure
a felsic intrusive rock would be called
granite
mineral usually known as fools gold
pyrite
biotite is a type of
mafic mica
decompression or the lowering of pressure can cause a rock to
melt
the rate that the temperature increases with depth downward into the earths is the
geothermal gradient
according to bowen's reaction series the first silicate mineral to melt ad a rock is heated will be
quarts
an example of a mineral not apart of the bowen's reaction series
gypsum
polymorphs are different minerals with the same
chemical formula
calcite dolomite and malachite are
sulfides
a igneous structure that is cuts the bedding in older rocks is called
dike
igneous rock made of giant crystals is called
pegmatite
element
basic substance that can never be subdivided by any chemical or physical means
92 in nature
ion
an atom (or group) that had gained or lost electrons and it had an electric charge
isotope
an atom of the same element with different mad and different number of neutrons
atomic bonding and there are 4 types
METALIC BONDING: between cations substaines, flexiable, good conductors
COVALENT BONDING: between anions, strongest bong, brittle, poor conductors
IONIC BONDING: cation and anion, poor conductors brittle medium to soft hardness
WEAK BONDING: between groups of atoms, brittle soft to medium hardness, low melting point
minerals
an inorganic naturally occuring crystaline solid with a definite composition and definite physical and chemical properties
earth materials
rock and minerals
external process
wind water rivers streams glaciers waves currents
nuclear fusion
small atoms combined and matter is turned into energy
internal process
earthquakes volcanos tectonic plated movemnt
nuclear fissions
large atoms split apart and miss is converted to energy
felsic rocks are
rich in silicon and aliminum
lighter in color
less dense
polymorphs
different minerals with the same chemical formula nut different crystal structure
ingneous rock
produced by melting other rocks
3 ways to melt a rock
1. raising the temperature
2. lowering the pressure
3. add volatiles
plutons
body of solidfied magma
dike
cut through the layers in a country rock
partial melting
produces a magma more felsic then the original rock
plutonic or intrusive igneous
form below the earths surface and form magma
crystalize slowly
volcanic or extrusive igneous
format the earths surface
crystalize quickly from lava
felsic lave
lower tempertaure higher viscosity
explosive
mafic lava
higher temperature
lower visersity;
less explosive
lava dome
made of felsic lava
small up to 6000 feet
steep
explosive
cinder cone
made entirely of pyroclastic material
mafic (basalt)
gas, rich lava
small volcanoes
steep
often found in groups
can appear suddenly
can flow from the base
stratovolcano or composite cone
"classic volcano"
andesite intermedite composition
layers of lava and pyroclosticas
large up to 20000 ft
explosive
shield volcano
mafic lava
biggest up to 30000 ft high
not explosive
gental slope
flood basalts
very fluid mafic lava
no cone
can cover huge areas of land 1000s of miles
caldera
huge volcanic crater formed when a volcano collapes down into a particle empty magma chamber
xenolithla
partically melted pieces of country rock included in the magma
what 4 steps make sedimentary rock
WEATHERING: parent rock is turned away to sediment (or ions solution)
TRANSPORT: sediment is carried away by water (steams, rivers, glaciers, ice)
DEPOSITION: sediment accumulates in a new location
LITHIFICATION: the sediment is turned into sedimentary rock
2 types of weathering
phyisical or metranical weathering
the parent rock is broken into fragments called clast and the reason for that is abrasion (the impact of clast being transported)
Chemical weathering:
parent rock is dissolved
carbonic acid
all rain is slightly acidic
weak acid (dose not affect living things)
suffic acid or hydrochlorie acid
strong acid
problem by human pollition
organic acid
plant roots
rotting vegitations
sediment maturity
increases when sediement is carried by water and wind
depostion
important enviornment of depostion
lithification
turing sediments into rock
1. compaction
2. cementation crystals: crystal overgrows precipitate out from the ground water and lock grains together
ground levels
0 horizon: organic matter
A horizon: mixed organic and sediment
E horizon: zone of solution
B horizon: zone of accumuliation
C horizon: weather rock fragments
solid rock
chemical sedimentary rock
made of material transported as ions in a solution usually
organic sedimentary rock
made of organic living materials
An Aquifer is
A body of saturated rock or sediment though which water could move easily and is determined by its determined by its perosity & permeability( opposite of Aquitard or Aguiclude)
What rock type is likely to posses the highest porosity
Shale
The rock type that is likely to posses the highest permeability
Sandstone
What determines how quickly ground water flows?
Elevation, permeability, water pressure
Artesian wells
Water rises under own pressure
Stalactites
Hang down
Stalagmites
Hang up ^
The decline in the levelin the level of the water table around a pumping well is known as
The cone of depression
Prolonged withdrawl of water from an aquifer
can alter the porosity or permeabilty of an aquifer
The top of the water saturated zoneis known as
The water table
Geyers and hotsprings
are caused by groundwater being geothermaly heated
Caves and cavern systems are formed by
Ground water dissolving limestone and dolomite
Gaining streams are those where
water from a saturated zone flows into the stream
Chapter 1: Which item listed below has helped to increase the carrying capacity of the earth?
E. all of the above
Chapter 1: What is the population of the world likely to be by the year 2050?
A. 9 billion?
Chapter 1: Which of the following statements is true regarding the world population growth since 1965?
C. it has been decreasing slowly
Chapter 1: IPAT equation is about which of the following?
C. environmental impact
Chapter 1: Which of the following is true of Environmental Geology?
E. all of the above
Chapter 1: The number of people/ animals that can be supported by a given area of land is called:
D. carrying capacity
Chapter 1: Which of the following is true of the world population in the 20th century?
C. it quadrupled
Chapter 1: Which of the following is not a variable in the IPAT equation?
A. Natural Resources?
Chapter 1: Exceeding of carrying capacity is referred to as
B. ecological overshoot
Chapter 1: Which of the following is NOT one of the environmental "successes" that have been accomplished since 1970?
A. unleaded gasoline has reduced lead emission by 98%
B. the California gray whale, the bald eagle, and the American alligator have been removed from the endangered species list
C. the numer of large cities violating the clean-air standards has dropped significantly
D. concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide have begun to decrease
E. all of the above
D. concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide have begun to decrease?
Chapter 1: What factor other than decreased birth rates has contributed to the lower United Nations world population project (made in 2002) for the year 2050?
B. HIV / AIDS
Chapter 1: Which of the following is NOT somethng that is included on derivative maps?
E. all of the above
Chapter 1: What is the computer system that assembles, stores, manipulates and displays geographic data according to location?
A. GIS?
Chapter 1: What are lines of equal elevation called on a topographic maps?
A. geological contacts
Chapter 1: How much greater are population growth rates in the poorer countries than they are in the richer countries?
B. 6 times
Chapter 1 True or False: The large argicultural yields obtained today are fundamentally dependant upon fossil fuels.
True
Chapter 1 True or False: An average American citizen consumes 35 times the resources of an average Indian citizen over the course of his/her lifetime.
True.
Chapter 1 True or False: Nearly half of the population of the world is living in cities.
True
Chapter 1 True or False: The main purpose of geological maps is to show the shape of the earth's surface.
False.
Chapter 1 True or False: Once the earth's carrying capacity is exceeded, population reduction will occur whether we want it to or not.
True
Chapter 1 True or False: GIS is a new navigational system that will soon replace GPS.
False
Chapter 1 True or False: Derivative maps are made from computer data sets that are analyzed and plotted for special applications.
True.
Chapter 1 True or False: Malthus posulated in 1812 that populations growth would soon cause global famine and collapse of society.
True
Chapter 1 True or False: Annual population growth rate of +1% corresponds to the situation where there were 100 more deaths per thousand individuals than live births in a given year.
False
Chapter 1 True or False: With a population growth rate of 0.7% it would take 100 years for the population to double.
True
Chapter 1 True or False: The highest soil degradation rates occur in Africa.
False
Chapter 1 True or False: Nations that tend to have the greatest environmental impacts are those with the lowest population growth rates.
True
Chapter 1 True or False: The size of our population is limited by the amount of food we can grow.
True
Chapter 1 True or False: Since 1950 about one third of all US cropland has been lost to erosion.
True
Chapter 1 True or False: The population density of the earth has tripled since World War II.
True
Chapter 2: The geological concept that processes active today have been active during the earth's past history is somethimes paraphrased as "the present is the key to the past" and is called
A. the law of Uniformaitarianism?
Chapter 2: An atom having either a positive or negative electrical charge is called
D. an ion
Chapter 2: A variet of an element that is heavier than normal because of the presences of extra neutrons is called
A. an isotope
Chapter 2: Most of the mass of an atom is located in its
C. nucleus
Chapter 2: Which of the following is NOT part of the general definition of a mineral?
A. amorphous
Chapter 2: Most of the rocks of the earth's crust are made up of which of the following mineral groups?
B. silicates
Chapter 2: Which silicate mineral is the most abundant in the earth's crust?
B. feldspar?
Chapter 2: Which property of minerals is variable and therefore the least reliable as a clue in identifying a mineral type?
E. color
Chapter 2: What are the three general classes of rocks that are defined based upon origin?
C. igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
Chapter 2: Plutonic rocks are atype of
D. intrusive igneous rock
Chapter 2: What is a common distinguishing characteristic of sedimentary rock masses?
D. they tend to be layered
Chapter 2: In addition to particles, what other material can be found in sedimentary rocks?
E. all of the above
Chapter 2: What distinguishes the pairs of rocks listed in the igneous rock classification from each other?
(Consider, for example, basalt and gabbro.)
D. texture
Chapter 2: What would be the method of choice for dating an organic substance less than 100,000 years old?
D. Carbon-14?
Chapter 2: What is an aggregate composed of one or more varieties of interlocking mineral crystals called?
C. rock
Chapter 2 True or False: The chances of being struck by lightning are about three times higher than the chances of a non-smoker dying from asbestos-related disease.
True
Chapter 2 True or False: There are over 30,000 mineral species.
False
Chapter 2 True or False: Oxygen and Silicon alone comprise 75% of crustal rocks by weight.
True
Chapter 2 True or False: About 20 out of the thousands of known mineral species make up the bulk of the earth's crust.
True
Chapter 2 True or False: In comparison to white asbestos, blue asbesto is the less harmful type used for industrial purposes.
False
Chapter 2 True or False: Magma is the general term for molten rock including bother underground and surface occurrences.
False.
Chapter 2 True or False: Rapid cooling of molten rock produces large crystals.
False.
Chapter 2 True or False: Rocks such as basalt, on the ride of the igneous rock classification, are darker-colored and have higher specific gravity than do rocks such as granite, on the left side.
True
Chapter 2 True or False: Metamorphic rocks where minerals have been flattened into layers by directed pressure are saild to be foilated.
True
Chapter 2 True or False: Relative age dating enables scientists to determine the age in years of a rock mass, whereas absolute age dating can only determine the sequence of events.
False
Chapter 2 True or False:? Rock layers containing extensive fossils of organisms with hard parts represent only about 12% of geologic time.
True
Chapter 2 True or False: In two "half-lives," one fourth of a radioactive substance will remain.
True
Chapter 2 True or False: Dates on zircons from western Australia suggest that the oldest crustal rocks are more than 4 billion years old.
True
Chapter 2 True or False: The earliest evidence of life on earth is over 3 billion years old.
True.
Chapter 2 True or False: Most of the world's diamonds come from South America.
False.
Chapter 3: Which of the following is NOT one of the lines of evidence cited by Alfred Wegener in support of the Continental Drift hypothesis?
D. studies of the earth's magnetic field
Chapter 3: Which of the following is NOT part of the lithosphere?
A. asthenosphere
Chapter 3: Which of the following is a type of plate boundary where new sea floor is formed?
E. divergent
Chapter 3: At what type of plate boundary do compression and subduction take place?
D. convergent
Chapter 3: What essential line of evidence in the 1960's helped to confirm the motion of the continents?
B. studies of the earth's magentic field
Chapter 3: The sequence of events that describes the opening and closing of ocean basins is called
B. the Wilson cycle
Chapter 3: What force is thought to be an important cause of plate tectonic motion?
A. thermal convection currents
Chapter 3: What was the name given by Alfred Wegener for the single large continent that he believed existed at the end of the Paleozoic Era?
C. Pangea
Chapter 3: What type of plate boundary is the San Andreas Fault?
C. transform
Chapter 3: Which of the following is a characteristic or feature of a convergent plate boundary?
E. all of the above
Chapter 3: What does a Benioff-Wadati zone refer to?
C. a subduction zone
Chapter 3: What was the name of the concept proposed by Harry Hess in 1960 that provided a mechanism for the Continental Drift hypothesis?
B. sea floor spreading
Chapter 3: What was the main objection to the Continental Drift hypothesis?
C. Wegener could not provide a mechanism for moving the continents
Chapter 3: What do VLBI, SLR, and GPS have in common with respect to plate tectonics?
E. they are methods of measuring the velocity of plate motion
Chapter 3: Which statement below is true about the oceanic crust in comparison to continental crust?
B. oceanic crust is thinner and heavier (higher specific gravity)
Chapter 3 True or False: Alfred Wegener is credited with developing the modern theory of Plate Tectonics back in the year 1910
False
Chapter 3 True or False: The crust of the earth is thickest under mountain ranges and thinnest in oceanic areas
True
Chapter 3 True or False: The lithospheric plates are thought to move primarily as a result of thermal conduction
False
Chapter 3 True or False:? Transform plate boundaries are places where shear stresses dominate.
True.
Chapter 3 True or False: There are 3 types of convergent plate boundaries.
True.
Chapter 3 True or False: The earth's magnetic field has reversed itself many times in the geologic past.
True
Chapter 3 True or False: The oldest ocean floor is less than 200 million years old.
True.
Chapter 3 True or False: Sea floor spreading happens at a rate of several meters per year.
False.
Chapter 3 True or False: The Mediterranean Sea has dried up completely during the geologic past and then rapidly refilled again.
True
Chapter 3 True or False: People living along a passive margin have a low probability of experience volcanoes and earthquakes
True
Chapter 3 True or False: There are 70 major plates that cover the outer surface of the earth
False
Chapter 3 True or False: Volcanic mountain ranges and deep earthquakes are common features of continental-oceanic convergent plate boundaries.
True
Chapter 3 True or False: The highest mountain ranges on earth occur along oceanic-oceanic convergent plate boundaries.
False.
Chapter 3 True or False: The Hawaiian Islands formed at a spreading ridge.
False
Chapter 3 True or False: Yellowstone is considered to be a potentially hazardous volcanic center because it's located above a hot spot.
True
Chapter 4: Reverse, normal and strike-slip all refer to types of
C. faults?
Chapter 4: What is the map location of an earthquake called?
B. epicenter
Chapter 4: What is stress?
A. force applied to an area
Chapter 4: What is the point of subsurface origin of an earthquake called?
A. focus
Chapter 4: Which type of earthquake wave moves the fastest?
C. P-waves
Chapter 4: Which type of earthquake wave could travel through a vaccum?
E. none of the above
Chapter 4: Which type of earthquake wave most closely resembles sound waves?
A. P-waves
Chapter 4: Which type of earthquake body wave cannot pass through liquids?
D. S-waves
Chapter 4: How much more energy does a magnitude 8 earthquake release than a magnitude 7 earthquake?
E. 30 times more
Chapter 4: How is the distance to the epicenter of an earthquake determined using a seismograph?
A. by considering the delay time between the P-waves and the slower S-waves
Chapter 4: What is one way that earthquake intensities are determined?
E. with postal questionnaires?
Chapter 4: How much more energy does a magnitude 8 earthquake release than a magitude 6 earthquake?
C. 900 times more
Chapter 4: What did the San Francisco (1906) and Kobe (1995) earthquakes have in common?
A. there were large uncontrolled fires
Chapter 4: What can be concluded from the observation that objects were thrown into the air during the earthquake?
D. the ground acceleration was greater than 1.0 g
Chapter 4: Where is the safest place, among those listed below, in the 48 continguous states with respect to earthquake seismic risk?
D. South Dakota
Chapter 4 True or False: Movements on faults must be abrupt in order for earthquakes to occur.
True
Chapter 4 True or False: All earthquakes break the ground surface
False
Chapter 4 True or False: Compression is the kind of force that produces normal faults.
False
Chapter 4 True or False: The focus of an earthquake is the point on the ground surface directly above the epicenter.
False
Chapter 4 True or False: Shear forces characterize the San Andreas fault.
True
Chapter 4 True or False: Earthquakes below about 300 kilometers in depth cause little or no damage.
True
Chapter 4 True or False: Earthquake waves that travel along the surface of the earth are called body waves.
False.
Chapter 4 True or False: Body waves generally slow down as they go deeper into the earth.
False
Chapter 4 True or False: Surface waves are generated by body waves.
True
Chapter 4 True or False:? p-waves travel slower than S-waves.
False
Chapter 4 True or False: A single seismograph can determine the location of an earthquake.
False
Chapter 4 True or False: No earthquake has been observed with the Richter Magnitude of greater than 8.9
True
Chapter 4 True or False: The "moment magnitude scale" has replaced the Richter Scale.
True
Chapter 4 True or False: Mercalli intensities are determined from seismographs.
False
A magnitude 7 earthquake releases 27,000 times more energy than a magnitude 4 earthquake.
True
what is albedo
fraction of solar energy reflected by surface of planet or moon
carbon cycle
geosystem of the movement of carbon among atmosphere & lithosphere, hydro & bio
el nino
anomalous warming of easter tropical pacific ocean occurs 3-7 yrs, lasting +/- year
green house effect
global warming via atmosphere w/ greenhouse gases radiating solar energy back less efficiently
milankovitch cycle
astronomical; causes periodic variations in the amount of heart earth gets from sun. cycles include: eccentricity of earths orbit, tilt of earth & precession: wobble on axis of rotation
hanging valley
valley left by melted tributary glacier that enters large glacial valley, high on wall
kettle
hollow depression w/ steep sides & maybe occupied of water: formed in glacial deposit
moraine
accumulation of rock, sandy, clayey material carried by glacial ice & deposited as till
permafrost
permanently frozen rock & ice: below 0 degrees for 2 yrs
plastic flow
total of all small movement of ice crystals that make up glacier -> results in large movement
striation
scratch/groove on bedrock by overriding ice
till
unsaturated & poorly sorted sediment w/ all sizes of fragments deposited by glacial action
ablation
the total amount of ice that a glacier loses each year
basal slip
the sliding of a glacier along its base
cirque
hollow, half inverted cone-like shape formed at the head of glacial valley by tearing & plucking action of ice
crevasse
vertical crack on surface of glacier from movement of brittle surface ice via plastic flow
drumlin
streamlined hill of till & bedrock that parallels ice movement of continental glacier
esker
long, narrow ridge of sand/gravel in middle of a ground moraline
fjord
formed glacial valley occupied by sea
principal or original horizontality
sediments are deposited under the influence of gravity as nearly horizontal beds
principle of superposition
each sedimentary layer of an undisturbed sequence is younger than 1 beneath it & older than above -> a younger layer cannot be deposited under old
principle of faunal succession
the layers of sedimentary rocks in out crop have fossils in sequence
cross-cutting relationships
dikes can cut through sedimentary layers, sills can be intruded parallel & faults can displace bedding planes, dikes & sills
sequence stratigraphy
basic geologic unit observed by the seismic imagine of sediments in a series of beds bounded above & below by unconformities
chemical stratigraphy
chemical finger prints that extend regionally/globally which can help match sedimentary rocks
paleomagnetic straitgraphy
reversals of earths magnetic field recorded in the orientation of magnetic minerals in volcanic rocks
detrital sedimentary
made of pieces of pre-existing rocks -> differientated by grain size (micro, sand, macro)
organic sedimentary
made of organic material produced by plants/animals -> distinguishable by hardness
inorganic chemical sedimentary
when sediment precipitates from water
non-foliated metamorphic
macro texture -> formed by contact metamorphism, generally 1 mineral
foliated metamorphic
maybe shiny -> quartzite & marble
P-Wave
the 1st seismic wave to arrive from the focus of an earthquake
S-Wave
the 2nd seismic wave to arrive from the focus of an earthquake
*Travel 1/2 as fact as P-Waves (17000m/hr OR 8km/sec)
*The longer the P-S interval, the further away the quake
*distance to an earthquake = measure P-S interval & compare a time v. distance graph
polar cell
air circulated in troposphere, warm air rises at lower latitudes & moves poleward through upper troposphere, when it reaches poles, it cools & descends as cold, dry high pressure area
coriolis effect:
deflection of moving object when viewed from rotating reference frame
*earths rotation on axis
doldrum
intertropical convergence zone, low calm winds
jet stream:
fast flowing, narror air current between troposphere & stratosphere
thermohaline circulation
3D pattern of ocean circulation driven by differences in temperature & salinity: important of ocean-atmosphere climate system
atmosphere
mixture of gases: 78% nitrogen, 21% nitrogen
troposphere
3/4 mass of atmosphere, lowest level (11 KM), responsible for weather
stratosphere
cold, dry layer above troposphere going to 50 km has most of the ozone
hadley cell
closed circulation loop beginning at equator w/ warm, moist air, lifted in low pressure areas
inland desert formed b/c by the time air masses reach interior, they have lost moisture
polar desert
annual precipitation less than 250 mm & high temp of 10 degree c
ephemeral stream:
stream that flows only after rain/snow-melt & has no base flow component
sand dune prerequisites (3)
1) abundant supply of loose sand in a region generally void of vegetation
2)a wind energy source sufficient to move sand
3) topography where the sand loses momentum & settles
kinds of sedimentary rocks (3)
detrital, organic & inorganic
playa lake
permanent/temporary lake in arid mountain valley or basins
slip face
steep lee slope of a dune on which sand is deposited in cross-beds at angle of repose
ventifact
wind-faceted pebble with several curved/flat surfaces that meet at sharp ridges via sandblast
subtropical desert
warm & arid, average temp above 32 degree f w/ annual rainfall less than 50cm & usually less than 25 cm, no vegetation
trade wind desert
little rain & high temp that occurs when winds blow over land
rain shadow desert
area of land that receives reduced precipitation due to close proximity to mountain
deflation
removal of dust, silt & sand from dry soil by strong winds that make depressions
desert pavement
ground too large for the wind to move, deflation removes fine particles
desert varnish
dark brown, shiny mix of clay, manganese & iron oxides on rock surfaces
loess
blanket of unstratified, wind-deposited, fine-grain sediment rich in clay minerals
pediment
broad, gently sloping platform of bedrock left behind as a mountain front erodes
igneous rocks
form by crystallization from magma
intrusive igneous
crystallie when magma intrudes into unmelted rock
extrusive igneous
form from rapidly cooled magmas that erupt at surface via volcano
*quartz, feldspar, mica, pyroxene, olivine
sedimentary rocks
formed by sediments of sand, silt, shells. layer when deposited
*lithified (held together) by: compact or cementation
metamorphic rock
formed by high pressures on igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic which chemically changes them
what are the physical properties of minerals (5)
hardness, clevage, fracture, color & streak
what is hardness (in terms of properties of minerals)
measure of the ease w/ which the surface can be scratched
*depends on chemical bonds
what is cleavage (in terms of properties of minerals)
tendency of a crystal to break along flat planar surfaces
*high bond strength = poor cleavage
* low bond strength =good cleavage
*covalent bond = poor/no cleavage
*ionic bond = very good cleavage
fracture (in terms of properties of mineral)
tendency to break on irregular surfaces
barchans
cresent-like dunes usually in groups. horns of crescent go downwind. products of limited sand & unidirectional wind
blowout dunes
reverse of barchans -> slip face is convex downwind
transverse dunes
long ridges oriented at right angles to the wind direction. form in arid place w/ abundant sand & no vegetation
linear dunes
long ridges of sand oriented parallel to wind direction reach height of 100 M. formed w/ moerate sand supple rough pavement & constant wind direction
thermal inversion
movement of cold air above & hot air below in reverse positions
*Thermal inversion occurs when a layer of warm air settles over a layer of cooler air that lies near the ground. The warm air holds down the cool air and prevents pollutants from rising and scattering.
background radiation
radiation that is always occuring
groundwater aquifier
underground water that flows downhill, cannot permeate clay
horn
glaciers that changed the appearance of a land form to sharp & jagged
Phaneritic:
Large crystals
Aphanitic:
Microscopic crystals
Porphyritic:
large crystals embedded in a matrix of smaller crystals
Pegmatitic:
coarse grained
Bowen's reaction series:
Minerals crystallize in a systematic fashion based on their melting points
Example of a shield volcano:
Mauna Loa
What kind of lava do shield volcanoes have?
basaltic lava
Example of a composite cone volcano:
Mt. St. Helens
Which type of volcano is the largest:
composite cone
Which volcano is the shortest and most short-lived?
Cinder cone
The four major sediment types:
cosmogenous
byogenous
hydrogenous
lithogenous
Schistosity:
layered structure, platy minerals that are discernible with the unaided eye
Where do wave fronts radiate from an eartquake?
Epicenter
Where do most earthquakes occur?
Plate Boundaries
Great earthquakes are associated with what kind of motion?
Stick-slip
P-Waves:
travels through solids and liquids
Short
Short in height
L-Waves:
travel at earth's surface
tall
long
S-Waves:
Travel only through solids
Scale of hardness; fingernail:
2-2.5
Scale of hardness; copper coin:
3.5
Scale of hardness; glass:
5-5.5
Scale of hardness; steel nail:
5-6
Scale of hardness; streak plate:
6.5-7
Fool's Gold (Pyrite), like gold, is soft and malleable. T or F
False
The earth is uniform is composition (all the same stuff) from the center to the surface. T or F
False
The minerals in igneous rocks all crystallize out of the melt at the same time and temperature. T or F
False
Minerals are always crystalline solids. T or F
True
Basalt is the most common intrusive igneous rock. T or F
False
The "discontinuous series" of Bowen's Reaction Series consists of dark colored minerals. T or F
True
Rubies and sapphires are composed of exactly the same chemicals. T or F
True
Present day geologic process are very different than those of the distant past. T or F
False
The texture of igneous rocks is determined by the cooling rate of the magma. T or F
True
There are more oxygen atoms in the crust of the earth than in the atmosphere. T or F
True
The ocean crust is formed mostly of -
A. Basalt
Rubies and sapphires are gem quality varieties of -
A. Corundum
The earth's core is inferred to be -
A. mostly iron
The premise that present-day processes have operated throughout geologic time is know as the principle of -
C. uniformitarianism
Ocean-ocean convergence zones are marked by the occurrence of -
D. volcanic island arcs
Dark minerals in igneous rocks are -
D. iron-magnesium silicates
Continental crust -
D. is compressed and thickened at converging plate margins
The steps to the library are made of
A. granite
The mid-oceanic ridges are sites of -
B. sea floor spreading
____ is a rock composed of olivine and pyroxene that similar to the composition of the mantle.
A. perodotite
Calcite is composed of -
B. calcium carbonate
Thin, sheet-like, disconcordant igneous intrusions are -
D. dikes
The tendency for some minerals to break along smooth, flat surfaces is known as -
A. cleavage
The earth is estimated to be ___ years old?
C. 4.6 billion
The most abundant mineral group in the crust is -
C. feldspar
Rapid cooling of magma results in a fine-grained texture called -
A. phaneritic
Igneous rocks that have a ___ texture have grains that can be seen with the named or unaided eye.
B. phaneritic
A natural glass formed by rapid cooling of lava is called -
D. obsidian
Basalt has the same mineral and chemical composition as -
A. gabbro
The mineral assemblage of quartz, K-spar, Na-plagioclase, with minor biotite or hornblende would be recognized readily by you as the minerals found in the rock know as -
a. granite
b. diorite
c. gabbro
d. scoria
a. granite
The dark, rock-forming minerals are rich in -
B. Fe and Mg
The early-formed light-colored mineral in a melt [magma[ is -
A. olivine
Pyroclastic rocks form by -
A. violent, explosive volcanic eruptions
Phenocrysts are evidence of -
B. two periods of cooling
Vesicles (holes) form in igneous rock (such as scoria and vesicular basalt) fro m-
A. escaping gas
The common lava extruded from stratovolcanoes is -
D. andesite
Shield volcanoes have low, angle slopes because they are composed of -
B. fluid basaltic lava
Steep-sided, classic, "volcano-shaped" cones are called -
C. stratovolcanoes
Mt. St. Helens is an excellent example of a -
A. explosive caldera
Rugged, blocky lava flows are called -
C. Aa
A volcanic rock that floats is -
B. pumice
Which one of the follow minerals can you scratch with your finger nail?
B. gypsum
An igneous rock possessing a combination of mineral grains with markedly different grain sizes is -
a. natural glass
b. formed by explosive volcanism
c. a porphyry
d. never found in nature
c. porphyry
My. Fuji in Japan and Mt. Etna on Sicily are classic examples of -
D. stratavolcanoes
The mid-oceanic ridges are -
C. sites of new oceanic material
All plate margins are characterized by -
A. high earthquake activity
Mid-oceanic ridges are sites of ____ plate boundaries
C. divergent
Rocks composed on only pyroxene and olivine may form by-
C. crystal settling
Which one of the following groups do most minerals in the earth's crust belong?
B. silicates
Most granite forms by -
A. melting of lower continental crustal material
Enchanted rock is
A. an exposed portion of granite batholiths
Dikes and sills are probably empaled in the crust by -
A. injection of magma into fractures
The first minerals of crystallize out of magma are -
C. Ca-plagioclase and olivine
___ is composed of minerals found in the mid-range of Bowen's Reaction series.
E. diorite
The minerals in the rock diorite are -
A. augite, hornblende and plagioclase
The minerals in igneous rocks that is rich in aluminum are -
B. mica and feldspar
The rock cycle implies that-
C. any rock type can form from any other rock type
The bright regions of the moon are made up of the rock -
B. anorthosite
Forty percent of the near side of the moon consists of smooth, dark plains made up of-
C. basalt
If you had to find K-spar where it occurs naturally in the state of Texas, one place that you would be certain to find it is -
A. Enchanted Rock
Plagioclase
B. white or grey, box-shaped grains
Amphibole (hornblende) -
B. dark, brown to black grains....
Olivine
B. glassy, green grains
Quartz -
B. glass, clear or translucent grains
Biotite (mica)
D. dark brown sheets
Define a glacier.
A glacier is a natural body of ice formed by the accumulation, compaction and recrystallization of snow that is thick enough to flow.
Why is a glacier considered to be a geologic system?
Glacial ice is really a type of metamorphic rock that begins as sediment (aggregate of mineral particles, or snow) and is then metamorphosed by compaction and recrystallization into glacial ice.
What happens in the zone of accumulation?
snow is transformed into glacial ice through compaction and recrystallization
What happens in the zone of ablation?
ice leaves the system by melting, calving, and evaporating
What is the boundary between the zone of accumulation and ablation called?
snow line
Define calving.
shedding of large blocks of ice from a glacier edge, usually into a body of water
What are the two main types of glaciers?
Valley and continental glaciers
A valley glacier that emerges from the mountain front and spreads out as a large love at the foot of the mountain is commonly called what?
piedmont glacier
Define the condition of extending flow.
Velocities of ice flow in the zone of accumulation increase progressively from the head to the snow line. Here, the ice is under tension and is constantly pulling away from upvalley ice.
Define the condition of compressing flow.
Below the snow line, velocities progressively decrease, therefore, upvalley ice is continually pushing against downvalley ice
How fast do glaciers flow?
The flow of glacial ice is not constant but varies significantly with time and place.
The flow of glacial ice is constant. T or F?
False
An extremely rapid flow of glacial ice, with velocities more than 100 times normal, is referred to as a -?
glacial surge
What are the three purposed causes of glacial surge?
basal slip
sudden slippages along the bases of glaciers
sudden addition of mass to the glacier
What are crevasses?
large cracks opened by fracturing of a brittle upper layer of ice as the underlying ice continues to flow
Glacial plucking is the-
lifting out and removal of fragments of bedrock by the moving ice
Describe the process of Abrasion
The angular blocks plucked and quarried by the moving ice freeze firmly into the glacier; thus firmly gripped, they are ground against the bedrock over which the glacier moves. The fragments become abraded and worn down as they grind against the bedrock surface. As a result, glacial boulders usually develop flat surfaces that are deeply scratched.
What are two evidences of abrasion?
roches moutonees and glacial striations
Name valley glacier's distinctive landforms. (6)
U-shaped valleys, cirques, hanging valleys, horns, moraines, and outwash plains
How do lateral moraines form?
As ice moves, it picks up rock and debris along its margins from abrasion, forming a marginal zone of dirty ice. The mass movement of rock debris from the valley walls above the glacier contributes to the rock debris along the ice margin. Below the snowline, the melting of the dirty ice concentrates the debris into a linear band along the side of the glacier
Where a tributary glacier joins the main stream, the two adjacent lateral moraines merge to form a -?
medial moraine
_____ are scoped out parts of a mountain.
Cirque
Where there two or more cirques they sculpt the mountain crest into a sharp peak called a ____.
horn
The ridge along two cirques are called ____.
aretes
The tributaries that lead into the main glacier are on the same level but with then glacier retreats the floor of the tributaries are higher than floor of the U-shaped valley. This area is known as what?
hanging valleys
Name the types of landforms continental glaciers produce. (6)
Moraines, drumlins, eskers, kettles, lake sediment, and outwash plains.
In rugged terrain, especially in areas close to the margins, the direction of ice movement of continental glaciers is greatly influenced by mountains ranges, and the ice moves through mountain passes in large streams of ____.
outlet glaciers
Streams of meltwater flow in tunnels within and beneath the ice and carry a large bed load, which is ultimately deposited to form a long, sinuous ridge known as an -?
esker
Till and outwash plain sediment, can be reshaped by subsequent advances of ice to produce streamlined hills called _____. They usually resemble a raindrop.
drumlins
Why are varves in a series of alternating light and dark layer
The coarse, light-colored material accumulates during spring and summer runoff. During the winter, when the lake is frozen over, o new sediment enters the lake, and the fine mud settles out of suspension to form the thin, dark layers.
How do kettles form?
Ice blocks, left behind by the retreating glacier front, can be partly or completely buried in the outwash plain or in moraines. Where an isolated block of debris-covered ice melts a depression is left.
What are erratics?
Erratics are large boulders transported by glaciers and then dropped far from their pointed of origin.
What were the major effects of the ice age? (9)
glacial erosion and deposition over large parts of the continents that modified river systems
creation of millions of lakes
changes in sea level
pluvial lakes developed far from ice margins
isostatic adjustments of the crust
abnormal winds
impact on the oceans
catastrophic flooding
modifications of biologic communities
Milankovitch climate cycles are caused by periodic changes with time in Earth's orbital elements, including ...?
orbital eccentricity, obliquity or tilit of the spin axis, precession or wobble of the spin axis
Chapter 1: Which item listed below has helped to increase the carrying capacity of the earth?
E. all of the above
Chapter 1: What is the population of the world likely to be by the year 2050?
D. 9 billion?
Chapter 1: Which of the following statements is true regarding the world population growth since 1965?
A. it has been decreasing slowly
Chapter 1: IPAT equation is about which of the following?
A. environmental impact
Chapter 1: Which of the following is true of Environmental Geology?
E. all of the above
Chapter 1: The number of people/ animals that can be supported by a given area of land is called:
C. carrying capacity
Chapter 1: Which of the following is true of the world population in the 20th century?
E. it quadrupled
Chapter 1: Which of the following is not a variable in the IPAT equation?
E. Natural Resources?
Chapter 1: Exceeding of carrying capacity is referred to as
A. ecological overshoot
Chapter 1: Which of the following is NOT one of the environmental "successes" that have been accomplished since 1970?
A. unleaded gasoline has reduced lead emission by 98%
B. the California gray whale, the bald eagle, and the American alligator have been removed from the endangered species list
C. the numer of large cities violating the clean-air standards has dropped significantly
D. concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide have begun to decrease
E. all of the above
D. concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide have begun to decrease?
Chapter 1: What factor other than decreased birth rates has contributed to the lower United Nations world population project (made in 2002) for the year 2050?
A. HIV / AIDS
Chapter 1: Which of the following is NOT somethng that is included on derivative maps?
E. all of the above
Chapter 1: What is the computer system that assembles, stores, manipulates and displays geographic data according to location?
E. GIS?
Chapter 1: What are lines of equal elevation called on a topographic maps?
A. geological contacts
Chapter 1: How much greater are population growth rates in the poorer countries than they are in the richer countries?
C. 6 times
Chapter 1 True or False: The large argicultural yields obtained today are fundamentally dependant upon fossil fuels.
True
Chapter 1 True or False: An average American citizen consumes 35 times the resources of an average Indian citizen over the course of his/her lifetime.
True.
Chapter 1 True or False: Nearly half of the population of the world is living in cities.
True
Chapter 1 True or False: The main purpose of geological maps is to show the shape of the earth's surface.
False.
Chapter 1 True or False: Once the earth's carrying capacity is exceeded, population reduction will occur whether we want it to or not.
True
Chapter 1 True or False: GIS is a new navigational system that will soon replace GPS.
False
Chapter 1 True or False: Derivative maps are made from computer data sets that are analyzed and plotted for special applications.
True.
Chapter 1 True or False: Malthus posulated in 1812 that populations growth would soon cause global famine and collapse of society.
True
Chapter 1 True or False: Annual population growth rate of +1% corresponds to the situation where there were 100 more deaths per thousand individuals than live births in a given year.
False
Chapter 1 True or False: With a population growth rate of 0.7% it would take 100 years for the population to double.
True
Chapter 1 True or False: The highest soil degradation rates occur in Africa.
False
Chapter 1 True or False: Nations that tend to have the greatest environmental impacts are those with the lowest population growth rates.
True
Chapter 1 True or False: The size of our population is limited by the amount of food we can grow.
True
Chapter 1 True or False: Since 1950 about one third of all US cropland has been lost to erosion.
True
Chapter 1 True or False: The population density of the earth has tripled since World War II.
True
Chapter 2: The geological concept that processes active today have been active during the earth's past history is somethimes paraphrased as "the present is the key to the past" and is called
D. the law of Uniformaitarianism?
Chapter 2: An atom having either a positive or negative electrical charge is called
E. an ion
Chapter 2: A variet of an element that is heavier than normal because of the presences of extra neutrons is called
B. an isotope
Chapter 2: Most of the mass of an atom is located in its
C. nucleus
Chapter 2: Which of the following is NOT part of the general definition of a mineral?
B. amorphous
Chapter 2: Most of the rocks of the earth's crust are made up of which of the following mineral groups?
B. silicates
Chapter 2: Which silicate mineral is the most abundant in the earth's crust?
A. feldspar?
Chapter 2: Which property of minerals is variable and therefore the least reliable as a clue in identifying a mineral type?
B. color
Chapter 2: What are the three general classes of rocks that are defined based upon origin?
A. igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
Chapter 2: Plutonic rocks are atype of
D. intrusive igneous rock
Chapter 2: What is a common distinguishing characteristic of sedimentary rock masses?
D. they tend to be layered
Chapter 2: In addition to particles, what other material can be found in sedimentary rocks?
E. all of the above
Chapter 2: What distinguishes the pairs of rocks listed in the igneous rock classification from each other?
(Consider, for example, basalt and gabbro.)
D. texture
Chapter 2: What would be the method of choice for dating an organic substance less than 100,000 years old?
C. Carbon-14?
Chapter 2: What is an aggregate composed of one or more varieties of interlocking mineral crystals called?
B. rock
Chapter 2 True or False: The chances of being struck by lightning are about three times higher than the chances of a non-smoker dying from asbestos-related disease.
True
Chapter 2 True or False: There are over 30,000 mineral species.
False
Chapter 2 True or False: Oxygen and Silicon alone comprise 75% of crustal rocks by weight.
True
Chapter 2 True or False: About 20 out of the thousands of known mineral species make up the bulk of the earth's crust.
True
Chapter 2 True or False: In comparison to white asbestos, blue asbesto is the less harmful type used for industrial purposes.
False
Chapter 2 True or False: Magma is the general term for molten rock including bother underground and surface occurrences.
False.
Chapter 2 True or False: Rapid cooling of molten rock produces large crystals.
False.
Chapter 2 True or False: Rocks such as basalt, on the ride of the igneous rock classification, are darker-colored and have higher specific gravity than do rocks such as granite, on the left side.
True
Chapter 2 True or False: Metamorphic rocks where minerals have been flattened into layers by directed pressure are saild to be foilated.
True
Chapter 2 True or False: Relative age dating enables scientists to determine the age in years of a rock mass, whereas absolute age dating can only determine the sequence of events.
False
Chapter 2 True or False:? Rock layers containing extensive fossils of organisms with hard parts represent only about 12% of geologic time.
True
Chapter 2 True or False: In two "half-lives," one fourth of a radioactive substance will remain.
True
Chapter 2 True or False: Dates on zircons from western Australia suggest that the oldest crustal rocks are more than 4 billion years old.
True
Chapter 2 True or False: The earliest evidence of life on earth is over 3 billion years old.
True.
Chapter 2 True or False: Most of the world's diamonds come from South America.
False.
Chapter 3: Which of the following is NOT one of the lines of evidence cited by Alfred Wegener in support of the Continental Drift hypothesis?
E. studies of the earth's magnetic field
Chapter 3: Which of the following is NOT part of the lithosphere?
C. asthenosphere
Chapter 3: Which of the following is a type of plate boundary where new sea floor is formed?
C. divergent
Chapter 3: At what type of plate boundary do compression and subduction take place?
A. convergent
Chapter 3: What essential line of evidence in the 1960's helped to confirm the motion of the continents?
A. studies of the earth's magentic field
Chapter 3: The sequence of events that describes the opening and closing of ocean basins is called
B. the Wilson cycle
Chapter 3: What force is thought to be an important cause of plate tectonic motion?
A. thermal convection currents
Chapter 3: What was the name given by Alfred Wegener for the single large continent that he believed existed at the end of the Paleozoic Era?
C. Pangea
Chapter 3: What type of plate boundary is the San Andreas Fault?
C. transform
Chapter 3: Which of the following is a characteristic or feature of a convergent plate boundary?
E. all of the above
Chapter 3: What does a Benioff-Wadati zone refer to?
A. a subduction zone
Chapter 3: What was the name of the concept proposed by Harry Hess in 1960 that provided a mechanism for the Continental Drift hypothesis?
C. sea floor spreading
Chapter 3: What was the main objection to the Continental Drift hypothesis?
C. Wegener could not provide a mechanism for moving the continents
Chapter 3: What do VLBI, SLR, and GPS have in common with respect to plate tectonics?
A. they are methods of measuring the velocity of plate motion
Chapter 3: Which statement below is true about the oceanic crust in comparison to continental crust?
B. oceanic crust is thinner and heavier (higher specific gravity)
Chapter 3 True or False: Alfred Wegener is credited with developing the modern theory of Plate Tectonics back in the year 1910
False
Chapter 3 True or False: The crust of the earth is thickest under mountain ranges and thinnest in oceanic areas
True
Chapter 3 True or False: The lithospheric plates are thought to move primarily as a result of thermal conduction
False
Chapter 3 True or False:? Transform plate boundaries are places where shear stresses dominate.
True.
Chapter 3 True or False: There are 3 types of convergent plate boundaries.
True.
Chapter 3 True or False: The earth's magnetic field has reversed itself many times in the geologic past.
True
Chapter 3 True or False: The oldest ocean floor is less than 200 million years old.
True.
Chapter 3 True or False: Sea floor spreading happens at a rate of several meters per year.
False.
Chapter 3 True or False: The Mediterranean Sea has dried up completely during the geologic past and then rapidly refilled again.
True
Chapter 3 True or False: People living along a passive margin have a low probability of experience volcanoes and earthquakes
True
Chapter 3 True or False: There are 70 major plates that cover the outer surface of the earth
False
Chapter 3 True or False: Volcanic mountain ranges and deep earthquakes are common features of continental-oceanic convergent plate boundaries.
True
Chapter 3 True or False: The highest mountain ranges on earth occur along oceanic-oceanic convergent plate boundaries.
False.
Chapter 3 True or False: The Hawaiian Islands formed at a spreading ridge.
False
Chapter 3 True or False: Yellowstone is considered to be a potentially hazardous volcanic center because it's located above a hot spot.
True
Chapter 4: Reverse, normal and strike-slip all refer to types of
C. faults?
Chapter 4: What is the map location of an earthquake called?
C. epicenter
Chapter 4: What is stress?
A. force applied to an area
Chapter 4: What is the point of subsurface origin of an earthquake called?
C. focus
Chapter 4: Which type of earthquake wave moves the fastest?
A. P-waves
Chapter 4: Which type of earthquake wave could travel through a vaccum?
E. none of the above
Chapter 4: Which type of earthquake wave most closely resembles sound waves?
A. P-waves
Chapter 4: Which type of earthquake body wave cannot pass through liquids?
D. S-waves
Chapter 4: How much more energy does a magnitude 8 earthquake release than a magnitude 7 earthquake?
E. 30 times more
Chapter 4: How is the distance to the epicenter of an earthquake determined using a seismograph?
B. by considering the delay time between the P-waves and the slower S-waves
Chapter 4: What is one way that earthquake intensities are determined?
B. with postal questionnaires?
Chapter 4: How much more energy does a magnitude 8 earthquake release than a magitude 6 earthquake?
C. 900 times more
Chapter 4: What did the San Francisco (1906) and Kobe (1995) earthquakes have in common?
A. there were large uncontrolled fires
Chapter 4: What can be concluded from the observation that objects were thrown into the air during the earthquake?
C. the ground acceleration was greater than 1.0 g
Chapter 4: Where is the safest place, among those listed below, in the 48 continguous states with respect to earthquake seismic risk?
B. South Dakota
Chapter 4 True or False: Movements on faults must be abrupt in order for earthquakes to occur.
True
Chapter 4 True or False: All earthquakes break the ground surface
False
Chapter 4 True or False: Compression is the kind of force that produces normal faults.
False
Chapter 4 True or False: The focus of an earthquake is the point on the ground surface directly above the epicenter.
False
Chapter 4 True or False: Shear forces characterize the San Andreas fault.
True
Chapter 4 True or False: Earthquakes below about 300 kilometers in depth cause little or no damage.
True
Chapter 4 True or False: Earthquake waves that travel along the surface of the earth are called body waves.
False.
Chapter 4 True or False: Body waves generally slow down as they go deeper into the earth.
False
Chapter 4 True or False: Surface waves are generated by body waves.
True
Chapter 4 True or False:? p-waves travel slower than S-waves.
False
Chapter 4 True or False: A single seismograph can determine the location of an earthquake.
False
Chapter 4 True or False: No earthquake has been observed with the Richter Magnitude of greater than 8.9
True
Chapter 4 True or False: The "moment magnitude scale" has replaced the Richter Scale.
True
Chapter 4 True or False: Mercalli intensities are determined from seismographs.
False
A magnitude 7 earthquake releases 27,000 times more energy than a magnitude 4 earthquake.
True
Chemical Weathering
When minerals react w/ air & water to form new minerals
chemical stability
measure of a substance tendency to retain its chemical identity rather than reacting spontaneously to become a different chemical
physical weathering
fractured large rock into smaller pieces which are more easily transported & eroded
strike
compass direction of a rock as it intersects with a horizontal surface
dip
measured at right angles to the strike, is the amount of tilting angle at which the bed inclines from the horizontal
geologic maps
represents the rock formation exposed at earths surface
folding a common form of deformation in?
layered rocks - rarely stay horizontal
syncline
downfold into trought
limbs
2 sides of a fold
basin
synclinal structure, bowl shaped depression of rock layers that beds dip radially toward central point
dome
anticlinal structure, broad circular or oval bulge of rock layers
relative humidity
amount of water vapor in air, relative to saturation of air
rain shadow
areas of low rainfall on downwind slopes
what are the 3 main types of tetonic force
tensional, compressive, shearing
tensional
in brittle crust, produce normal faulting my split apart, causing a rift valley
compressive
when 2 plates collide, crust can be compressed across a wide zone. fold & thrust belt
shearing
long transform in faults are rarely straight. faults have bends & jogs -> change tectonic forces. cause secondary faulting & folding
recharge
infiltration of water into any subsurface formation, often from the surface by rain/melthing snow
what did william smith discover
fossils can help to order relative ages of sedimentary rock
principle of faunal succession
layers of sedimentary rocks in outcrop contain fossils in a defininte sequence. the same sequence can be found at other location
ground water
mass of water stored under earths surface
porosity
% of rock, soil or sedminets total volume that is taken up by pores
aquifier
bed that store & transmit groundwater in sufficient quantity to supply wells
unsaturated zone
level at which the pores contain some air and are not completely filled with water
groundwater table
boundary between 2 zones
saturated zone
level at which the pored of the soil or rock are completely filled with water
reservoir
each place that stores water
hydrologic cycle
cyclical movement of water from ocean -> atmosphere by evaporation -> surface by rain -> streams by runoff & groundwater -> ocean
droughts
periods of months/years when precipitation is lower than normal
foliated rock 4 main criteria
1. size of crystals
2. nature of foliation
3. depree that minerals are segregated in color bands
4. metamorphic grade
principle of original horizontality
sediments are deposited under influence of gravity as nearly horizontal beds. if we find folded/faulted the strata layers were deformed by tectonic forces after sediment deposit
principle of superposition
each sediment layer of undisturbed sequence is younger than one beneath it & older than one above
suspension
sediment/rocks suspended in stream
water table
barrier between saturated & unsaturated water
weathered
general process that breaks rocks into fragments by combination of physical fracturing & chemical decomposition
subduction
sinking of oceanic plate under overriding plate at ca convergent plate boundary. overriding plate maybe oceanic or continental
rock rall
very rapid movement in which newly detached individual block of rock plummet suddenly in free fall from a cliff or steep mountain side
saltation
an intermittent jumping motion or sand or fine sediment alon a steam bed in which grain are suck up into the flow by turbulent eddies move with the current for a short distance & then fall back to the bottom
plunge
a fold whose axis is not horizontal but dip
grading
fine particles settle to bottom & heavy at top. occurs in slow moving water
inverse grading
heavy particles at bottom & small at top. occurs in fast moving bodies of water
longshore current
a current that flows parallel to the shoreline, the summed longshore components of water motion of waves that break. obliquely with respect to the shore
bedding
formation of parallel layer of sediment as particles settle to the bottom of the sea, a river or a land surface
perched
the groundwater table in a shallow upper surface of an aquifier that is perched above & separated from the main body of groundwater by aquilude
plastic
total of all the small movement of the ice crystals that make up a glacier, resulting in a large movement of ice
half-life
time required for half of the original number of radioactive atoms in an element to decay
weathering
one of major geological processes in rock cycle, shapes earths surface/alters rock materials, converting all kinds of rock into sediment -> soil
4 key factos that control rock fragmentation & decay
1. properties of parent rock
2. climate
3. presence/absence of soil
4. length of time rocks are exposed to atmosphere
mass wasting
all the processes by which masses of rock & soil move downhill under the influence of gravity
erosion
set of processes that loosen soil & rock & move them downhill/strem where they are depisted as sedimentary layers.
what 4 precipitations cause decay & breakdown
rain, wind, ice & snow
what are the processes that loosen & transport soil/rock down?
erosion & mass wasting
outcrop
basic source of deformation information where bedrock that underlies surface is exposed
what is an important clue to overall structure of outsrop
orientation of layers
what described the orientation of a rock layer exposed at an outcrop
strike & dip
what are the 4 types of metamorphism
regional, contact, seafloor, shock
regional metamorphism
caused by high pressures & temperatures that extend over large regions
contact metamorphism
changes in minerology & texture of rock resulting from the heat & pressure in small area
seafloor metamorphism
associated with mid ocean ridges in which changes in chemical composition produced by fluid transport
shock metamorphism
occurs when minerals are subject to high pressure & temperature of shock waves when meteor collides with earth
metamorphism p-t
history of changes in conditions of pressure & temperature
what are 3 principal factors of metamorphism
1. internal heat of earth
2. pressure
3. fluid composition
push rocks at earths surface down to great depths subjecting them to high pressure & temperature
role of temperature in metamorphism
heat effects chemical composition, minerology, & texture.
geothermal gradient
increase of temperature with increasing depth
role of pressure in metamorphism
confining & directed
confining pressure
general force applied equally in all directions
directed pressure
force exerted in a part direction pressure, like temp increases with depth
role of fluids in metamorphism
metasomatism
metasomatism
change in a rocks bulk chemical composition by fluid transport of chemical components into or out of rock
Reverse thrust fault
Plunging fold
Left lateral strike slip
Horizontal fold
Normal Faulting
overturned folds
oblique slip fault
asymmetrical folds
tensional tectonics
normal faults w/ hih dip angles in upper crust, flatten w/ depth
compressive tectonics
compression on continental crust on thrust faults with low dip angle
shearing tectonics
shearing continental crust on nearly vertical strike-slip fault
plunging anticline, plunging syncline
right lateral strike slip
symmetrical folds
the maximum angle between a planar surface and a horizontal plane
dip
forces acting in opposite directions
compressional stress
a fold with only one limb
monocline
a structure that has dips towards it from all sides
basin
recumbent folds
are overturned to the point that limbs are horizontal
the angle between the axis of a fold and the ground surface
plunge
if a anticline on a geologic map forms a nose pointing towards the east it is plunging towards that
east
a break in rocks there has been relative motion in called
fault
the exposed face of a fault
scarp
the fault that divided the Basin and Range PRovince from the Mojava Province is called
garlock fault
mountains formed a "pressure ridges"
san gabriels
a very flat (low angle) normal fault is called
detachment fault
the main type of faults in the basin and range province of the western UNited States is
normal
the mountain ranges in the Basin and Range Province are
horsts
p waves
are compressional waves
type of surface waves
L
triagulation from 3 seismographs locations is done to
locate the epicenter
the difference in arrivale time between the P and S waves tells
the distance from the epicenter
the epicenter of an earthquake, by definition, must always be
at the surface of the earth
rivers and glaciers get their energy from
solar energy and the external heat engine
the internal heat engine provides the energy for
earthquakes
the earths tectonic plates are moves by convection in the
mantle
all of the earths ocean flood was created in
mid ocean ridges
what feature is found when two oceanic plates converge
trench
compared to oceanic crust, continental crust is less dense
the deepest earthquakes are
where plates are converging
the himalaya mountains formed
as two continents collided
a rift valley would be found where tectonic plates are
diverging
the hawaiian island are
over a hot spot in the mantle
the atomic particle with a positive electrical charge is called the
proton
the this element would from a cation
iron
the suns energy is produced by
nuclear fusion
an amoprhous solid is a
glass
the type of chemical bond that is most flexible is
metallic
a mineral must be a
solid
what is a example of a non mineral
wood, oil
metallic glassy and dull are examples of
luster
which property is useful in identifying almost all minerals
hardness
a mineral that breaks into curved or irregular fragments is demonstration
fracture
the streak of a mineral describes
the powder left on a white plate
mafic minerals are rich in
iron and magnesium
silica tetrahedra contain a silicon atom surrounded by atoms of what element
oxygen
a volcanic rock with a mafic composition is called
basalt
a igneous rock with 2 different sizes of crystals in it is
porphyritic
sharp angular lava is called
aa
cinder cones
are entirely made of pyroclastic material
the largest volcanoes are
shield volcano
the type of volcano made of andesite is
composite volcano
a good example of caldera is
crater lake
the city of Armenro Colombis was destroyed in 1985 by
volcanic mudflows
a nuee ardante is
a glowing cloud of hot gas and ash
a lava that erupts underwater would have
pillow structures
a felsic intrusive rock would be called
basalt
the mineral commonly known as "fools gold" is
pyrite
biotite is
a mafic mica
decompression, or lowering of pressure will help rocks
to melt
the rate that temperture increases with depth downward into the earth is the
benioff zone
according to Bowen's reaction series, the first silicate mineral to melt as a rock is heated will be
quartz
which of the following minerals is not part of discontinuous series of bowen;s reaction series
gypsum
polymorphs are different minerals with the same
chemical formula
calcite, dolomite, malchite are
carbonates
the chain silicate minerals groups are amphiboles and the
pyroxenes
rock are more likey to melt
when water is present
an igneous structure that is cuts the bedding in older rock is called a
dike
an igneous rock made of giant crystals (up to 10 meters) is called
pegmatite
the force that drives mass wasting is
gravity
the greatest annual property in the U S is from
floods
a type of mass wasting where the interior sturcture of the material will not be preserved
flow
a desirable feature from the perspective of avoiding mass wasting is
bedding in the opposite direction to the slope
the volume of water flowing down a river is called the
discharge
rock grains that move alone the bed of a stream in a jumping motion are said to move by
saltation
the type of drainage pattern shown in the stream map below is
dendritic
a perfectly straight river would have a sinuosity of
1
a youthful stream will not have
a wide flood plain
sandbars deposited on the inside of meander curves are called
point bar
the sediment deposited by a meandering stream
get finer upward
darcys law is used to calculate
porosity
a rock that prevents any water from flowing through is called an
aquiclude
in order to have a flowing artesian well you must have
a recharge area at a higher elevation than the well
above the water table is
the vabose zone
a feature sticking up from the floor of a cave would be a
stalagmite
if there is more than one water table in an area the higher waterable is
perched
a large crack into a glacier is called
creavasse
firn is
partially recrystallized snow
a sharp ridge between two glaciers is called
arete
unsorted glacial sediment is called
till
which moraine is a type of end moraine
recessional
roc that prevents any water from flowing through is called an
aquiclude
in order to have a flowing artesian well you must have
a recharge areas at a higher elevation that the well
above the water table is
vadose zone
a feature sticking up from the floor of a cave would be a
stalagmite
if there is more than one water table in an area the higher water table is
perched
a large crack into a glacier is called
crevasse
firm is
partially recrystallized snow
a sharp ridge between two glaciers is called
arete
the energy for waves comes from
the wind
most beaches have the largest waves in the
winter
the highest point on a wave is the
crest
wave refraction tends to
bend waves parallel to the shoreline
the vertical distance from the trough to the crest of a wave is the
height
the circular motions of the water beneath a wave are called
orbitals
wave base for a wave is equale to
half the wavelength
between the berm and the seacliffs you would fine what part of a beach
backshore
if you are caught in a rip current you should
swim parallel to the shore
upper newport bay and bolsa chica are good examples of
estuaries
which of the following protective measures actually increase the erosion on a beach
sea walls
beach erosion is a greater problem today then in then past mainly because of
most rivers are dammed
the greatest loss of sand from beaches occurs when the sand
flows down submarine canyons
if a groin is built then there will be
some depostition on the side that the longsore current is coming from, but an equal amount of erosion on the downcurrent side
a sand bar attached to the coast on one side is called
spit
offshore rocks left behind as a coastline erodes are called
stacks
a world wide change in sealevel is called
eustatic
the steepest part of a continental margin is the
continental slope
the edge of the continental shelf is called the
shelf break
a flat topped seamount is called a
guyot
which is not part of an ophiolite sequence
rhyolite
the deepest part of the oceans are the
trenches
a ring shaped coral island is called a
atoll
the place where you would find life forms that get their energy from the "internal heat engine" rather than the "external heat engine: would be