ANS and ENDOCRINE SYSTEMS

• Autonomic sensory neurons
• Integrating centers
• Autonomic motor neurons
• Enteric Division

• includes both sensory and motor neurons
• conveys input from somatic (pain, thermal, tactile, and proprioceptive) and special senses (hearing, taste, sight, smell, equilibrium)
• consciously percieved
• innervate skeletal muscle and the effect is always excitation

• main input comes from autonomic (visceral) sensory neurons
• Autonomic neurons regulate visceral activites
• sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions

• first of two motor neurons in any ANS pathway
• the preganglionic neuron is is myelinated

located in the brain or spinal cord

where the preganglionic neuron axons lead to

• axon has a small diameter but is unmylenated
• leads to the effector
• lies completely outside the CNS, cell body is contained in the autonomic ganglion

• receive impulses from both sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons
• nerve impulses from one stimulates and the impulses from the other inhibits

• fight or flight division
• majority of its output is directed at smooth muscle of blood vessels 
• increases alertness and metabolic activities to prepare for emergency situation, physical activity, or stress
• increases heart rate, faster breathing dilation of pupils, dry mouth, seaty but cold skin, constricting vessels to organs not invovled in stress

• rest and digest division
• activities conserve and restore body energy during times of rest
• majority of output is directed to smooth muscle and glandular tissue of the GI and respiratory systems

• cardiac
• pulmonary (bronchial tree)
• celiac (abdomin)
• superior mesenteric
• inferior mesenteric
• hypogastric
• renal (abdomin)

in the lateral horns of the gray matter in the 12 thoracic segments and the first 2 lumbar segments of the spinal cord

called thoracolumbar division

• in the nuclei of four cranial nerves in the brain stem (III, VI, IX, and X) and in the lateral gray horns of the second through fourth sacral segments of the spinal cord
• craniosacral division

extend from white ramus communicantes into the sympathetic trunk ganglion giving off axon collaterals which terminate and synapse in several different ways

• in the first ganglion at the level of entry (1st ganglion it finds)
• form sympathetic chains
• form splanchnic chains

• aka vertebral chain ganglia or prevertebral ganglia
• lie in a vertebral row on either side of the vertebral column
• extend from the base of the skull to the coccyx
• postgaglionic neurons mostly innervate organs above the diaphragm

because the sympathetic trunk is close to the spinal cord the preganglionic axons are short and the postganglionic axons are long

• superior cervical ganglia 
• middle cervical ganglia
• inferior cervical ganglia

• when an axon ascends or descends to a higher or lower ganglion before synapsing  with postganglionic neurons
• fibers on which the ganglia are strung

when an axon continues without synapsing through the sympathetic trunk ganglion to end at a prevertebral ganglion and synapse without postganglionic neurons there

• returns via gray communicating rami to anterior ramus of the spinal cord
• exit into nerve branches that supply the heart
• exit trunk in nerves that enter plexuses that supplies blood vessels in that region

• largest plexus that surrounds the celiac and superior messenteric arteries
• goes to the liver, galllbladder, stomach, pancreaus, spleen, kidneys, adrenal gland, testes and ovaries

contains superior messenteric plexus and supplies the small and large intestine

• contains inferior mesenteric ganglion
• which innervates the large intestine

supplies pelvic viscera

contain the renal ganglion and supply the renal arteries within the kidney and the ureters

• lies anterior to the vertebral column and close to the large abdominal arteries
• postganglionic neurons innervate organs below the diaphragm

• celiac ganglion
• superior mesenteric ganglion
• inferior mesenteric ganglion
• aorticorenal ganglion

• on either side of the the celiac artery inferior to the diaphragm
• splanchnic nerves from the thoracic area terminate here

• near the beginning of the superior mesenteric artery in the upper abdomin
• innervate muscles of the blood vessels of the small intestine and proximal colon

• near the beginning of the inferior mesenteric artery in the middle of the abdomen
• lumbar splanchnic nerves lead into this and supply the blood vessels of the distal colon and rectum, urinary bladder, and genital organs

near the renal artery as it branches from the aorta

cell bodies are found in nuclei of the brain stem and in the lateral horns of the second through fourth sacral segments of the spinal cord

emerge as part of a cranial nerve or as part of the anterior root of a spinal nerve

• cranial parasympathetic division
• sacral parasympathetic division

has axons in the 4 cranial nerves

has axons in the S2-S4

• the place where preganglionic axons of the parasympathetic division synapse with postganglionic neurons
• located close to or within the wall of the visceral organ

since the terminal ganglia is close to the organ  the neuron inntegrates the preganglionic neuron has very long axons

• Cilary ganglia (III)
• pterygopalatine ganglia (VII)
• submandibular ganglia (IX)
• otic ganglia (X)

• specialized network of nerves and ganglia forming an integrated neuronal network within the wall of the GI tract, pancreas, and gallbladder
• functions independently of the CNS but can also receive controlling input from the CNS]
• sensory neurons send signals to the enteric ganglia

• myenteric plexus 
• submucosal plexus

• largest of the enteric plexuses
• positioned between the outer longitudinal and circular muscle layers from the upper esophagus to the anus
• communicates extensively with the submucosal plexus

• smaller of the two enteric plexuses
• occupies the gut wall between the circular muscle layer and the mucularis mucosaw and runs from the stomach to the anus

• serve the head and the heart
• sweat glands, smooth muscle of the eye, blood vessels of the face, lacrimal glands, nasal mucosa, salivary glands and the heart

innervates the heart

innervates the heart

collections of myelinated white rami that connects the anterior ramus of the spinal nerve with the ganglia of the sympathetic trunk

• structures containing postganglionic axons that connect the ganglia of the various portions of the sympathetic trunk ganglion to spinal nerves
• axons are unmyelinated
• outnumber the white rami because gray ramus leading to each of the pairs of spinal nerves that carries sympathetic output to the smooth muscle and glands of the bod

• pierces the diaphramg and enters the celiac ganglion of the celiac plexus
• made from preganglionic axons from the fifth through ninth or tenth thoracic ganglia

• pierces the diaphragm and passes through the celiac plexus to enter the aorticorenal ganglion and superior mesenteric ganglion of the superior mesenteric plexus
• made from the preganglionic axons from the tenth and eleventh thoracic ganglia

• formed by preganglionic axons from the twelfth thoracic ganglia or a branch of the lesser splanchnic nerve
• passes through the renal plexus near the kidney

made from preganglionic axons from the first through fourth lumbar ganglia enter the inferior mesenteric plexus and terminate in the inferior mesenteric ganglion

preganglionic axons pass with oculomotor nerves to the ciliary ganglia. postganglionic axons from the ganglia innervate smooth muscle fibers in the eyeball

receive preganglionic axons from the facial nerve and send postganglionic axons to the nasal mucosa, palate, pharynx, and lacrimal glands

receive preganglionic axons from the facial nerves and send postganglionic axons to the submandibular and sublingual salivary glands

they receive preganglionic axons from the glossopharyngeal nerves and sends postganglionic axons to the parotid salivary glands

consist of the anterior roots of the second through fourth sacral nerves

release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine or ACh

• all sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic neurons
• sympathetic postganglionic neurons that innervate most sweat glands
• all parasympathetic postganglionic neurons

integral membrane proteins in postsynaptic plasma membrane

• nicotinic receptors
• muscarinic receptors

• present in plasma membranes of the dendrites and cell bodies of both sympathetic and parasympathetic postganglionic neurons and in the motor end plate of the neuromuscular junction
• named because nicotine mimics these affects by binding to these receptors
• causes depolarization

• present in the plasma membrane of of all effectors (smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands) innervated by parasympathetic postganglionic axons
• most sweat glands which receive their innervation from cholinergic sympathetic postganglionic neurons that possess muscarinic receptors
• can sometimes cause depolarization or hyperpolarization

• in the ANS these release noradrenalin
• most sympathetic postganglionic neurons 
• NE is synthesized and stored in synaptic vesicles and released by exocytosis

bind NE and epinephrine

• alpha receptors
• beta receptors
• NE stimulates alpha receptors more than beta receptors

gives us the fight or flight

• pupils of the eyes dilate
• heart rate, force of heart contraction and blood pressure increase
• airways dilate allowing faster movement of air into and out of lungs
• blood vessels
• liver cells perform glycogenolysis and adipose tissue cells and perform lipolysis
• release of glucose by the liver increases blood glucose level
• processes that are not essential for meeting the stressful situation are inhibited
• longer lasting due to release of norepinephrine

• rest and digest of SLUDD
• salivation,lacrimation,urination,digestion,and defecation
• parasympathetic responses support body functions that conserve and restore body energy during times of rest and recovery

in the quiet intervals between periods of exercise, parasympathetic impulses to the digestive glands and smooth muscle of gastrointestinal tract predominate over sympathetic impulses

receptor responds to stimulus and trigger impulses to the sensory neuron. sensory neuron conducts the nerve impulse from the receptor to the CNS. the integrating center relays the signal from the sensory neuron to the motor neuron. the motor neuron sends signal to the effector

• responses that occur when nerve impulses pass over an autonomic reflex arc
• play major role in blood pressure digestion defecation and urination

same but is more spread out due to the branches of the postganlionic synapses

• releases hormones into the interstitial fluid and then into the blood stream
• blood delivers the hormone to the effector
• effectors use receptors to recognize hormones

• releases hormones into the interstitial fluid and into the blood stream
• does not have glands

• secrete products into ducts that carry the secretions to the body cavities, into the lumen of an organ, or onto the outer surface of the body
• produce sweat and mucous

• the effector of the hormone
• hormones will only go to  and chemically bind to specific target cells due to receptors on that cell

a specific protein on the target cell that a hormone chemically binds to

• pea shapped structure that lies in the shpenoid bone
• also called the hypophysis
• secretes several hormones and controls other endocrine glands
• controled by the hypothalamus

• inferior to the thalamus
• major integrating link between the nervous and endocrine systems

connects the pituitary gland to the hypothalamus

• hGH
• TSH
• FSH
• PRL
• ACTH

• human growth hormone
• aka somatotropin
• secreted by somatotrophs
• promote body growth and regulates metabolism along with stimulating the secretion of insulinlike growth factos

• thyroid stimulating hormone
• aka thyrotropin
• stimulates the secretion of thyroid hormones

• follicle-stimulating hormone
• aka; luteinizing hormone
• in females it initiates the secretion of estrogen and progesterone
• in males it stimulates the testes to produce sperm and testosterone

• prolactin
• initiates milk production in the mammary glands

• adrenocorticotropic hormone
• aka corticotropin
• receives information from the brain and has action on the lymphic system, thalamus, and helps receive information from our internal organs

regulates body temperature, thirst, hunger, sexual behavior, defense mechanisms, fear, rage, fight or flight

• pituitary dwarfism
• gigantism
• acromegaly

• hypo or under secretion of the pituitary gland
• causes shortness

• hyper or over secretion of the pituitary gland (hGH)
• causes increased growth of the body

• hyper secretion in the pituitary gland of the hormone hGH causing the epiphesial plate to increase its growth in the bone
• causes hands and feet and jaw to thicken and enlarge in adults

• does not synthesize hormones but it stores and releases two hormones
• controled by the hypothalamus

• OT
• ADH

• oxytocin
• during and afte delivery of a baby this hormone will target the mothers uterus and breast
• causes the stretching of the uterus by enhancing contraction of smooth muscle cells in the wall of uterus
• also stimulates milk ejection from the mammary glands

• antidiuretic hormone
• aka vassopressin
• decreases urine volume by causing sweating or increasing blood pressure by constricting arteioles
• causes kidneys to release more water to the blood decreasing urine volume

• a small endocrine gland attached to the roof of the third ventricle of the brain and the midline
• part of the epithalamus

melatonin

• hormone of darkness
• sets our biological clocks 
• when we sleep this hormone is increased by 10 fold and begins to decrease just before we wake up

SAD

• effects people with depression during winter months
• get depressed due to lack of sun light

• butterfly shaped located inferior to the larynx
• lateral lobes connected by isthmus
• secrete T3 and T4

• T3 and T4
• regulate oxygen use and basal metabolic rate
• cellular metabolism and growth and development

• congenital hypothyroidism
• myxedema
• graves disease
• exophthalmos
• goiter

• hyposecretion of thyroid gland
• causing mental retardationand stunt bone growth

• hyposecretion of thyroid gland
• 5xs more likely in females
• adema (collection of fluid in body)

• hypothyroidism
• 7-10xs more likely in females

adema behind the eyes of someone who has graves disease causing a bulge

enlarged thyroid gland

partially embedded in the posterior surface of the lateral lobes of the thyroid gland

PTH

• parathyroid hormone
• increases the calcium and magnesium levels in our blood

• hypoparathyroidism
• hyperparathyroidism

• to little PTH
• causes twitches and spasms and also contractures (maintained contractions of muscles)

• to much PTH
• causing bones to become soft and easily breakable

• lies superior to each kidney 
• has a flattened pyramidal shape

• inner region of the adrenal gland
• develops from ectorderm

• epinephrine
• noreepinephrine

• divided into three zones each of which secretes different hormones
• zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, and the zona reticularis

• secrete mineralocorticoids
• affect metabolism of minerals sodium and potassium

• part of the adrenal glands that releases glucocorticoids
• affect glucose metabolism

• synthesize small amounts of weak androgens 
• have masculinizing  effects

• aka adrenaline
• responsible for fight and flight
• produces effects mimicing those of the sympathetic division

• aka noradrenaline
• responsible for fight or flight
• produces effects that mimmic the sypathetic nervous system

• congenital adrenal hyperplasia
• virilism masculazation
• cushing's syndrome
• addison's disease
• pheochromocytomas

genetic disorder that prevents the enzyme needed for synthezation of cortisol

a female who has masculine features such as facial hair or atrophy of the breasts

• tumor that develops on the adrenal gland that breaks down muscle protein and redistributes body fat
• thin arms and legs, bruise very easily

• autoimmune (body attacks itself)
• causes mental lephargy, anarexia, nausia, vommiting, weight loss, muscular weakness

benine tumors that causes a prolonged fight or flight response continually high heart rate and blood pressure  and sweat

• both an endocrine and exocrine gland 
• flattened organ that is located posterior and slightly inferior to the stomach and consists of a head body and a tail

• endocrine portion of the pancreas
• contain alpha, beta, delta and F cells

• raises blood glucose
• secrete glucagon

• lower blood glucose
• secrete insulin

• inhibit secretion of insulin
• secrete somatostatin

• inhibit somatic sensory secretion of the gall bladder, contractions of the pancreas, and controls digestive enzymes
• secretes pancreatic polypeptide

diabetes mellitus

• caused by an inability to produce or use insulin
• fourth leading cause of death in US
• type 1: beta cells produce too little insulin, become insulin dependent, immune system is destroying beta cells
• aka: insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
• type 2: non insulin dependent, more common than type 1 , 90% of diabetes cases, high glucose levels that can usually be controlled by diet, weight loss, and sometimes insulin

female sex organs located in the pelvic cavity

• estrogen
• progesterone
• inhibin
• relaxin

• regulates womens menstral cycles, prepares the mammary glands for lactation
• also responsible for the development and maintenance of female secondary sexual characteistics

• maintains the females secondary gender characteristics
• help prepare the mammary glands for lactation

inhibits the secretions of FSH from the anteior pituitary

• increases flexability of the pubic synthesis before birth
• also produced by the placenta
• helps dilate the uterine cervix during labor and delivery

• testosterone
• inhibin

male has two oval gonads

stimulates descent of testes before birth, regulates production of sperm and stimulates the development and maintenance of male secondary sexual characteristics such as beard growth

• gastrin
• GIP
• secretin
• CCK

promotes the secretion of gastric juices and promotes the secretions from the stomach and movement in the stomach

• glucose dependent insulinotropic peptide
• stimulates the increase of insulin by the beta cells

increases secretion of bile and digestive juices from the pancreas

• cholecystokinin
• release of bile from the gall bladder and helps bring the feeling of fullness

• gastritis
• ulcerative colitis
• IBS
• hypertension
• asthma
• rheumatoid arthritis
• migrain headaches
• anxiety
• depression

inflamation of the intesting

ulcer forms in a part of the colon

irretal bowel syndrome

high blood pressure

respiratory and tied to endocrine system due to hormones being released to regulate the breathing

inflammed joints

can be debillitating

fear that something may happen

• hCS
• hCG
• estrogen
• progesterone

• human chorionic somatomammotropin
• development of the mammory glands for lactation

• human chorionic gonadotropin
• stimulates the corpus luteum in the ovary to produce estrogen and progesterone during pregnancy

• renin
• EPO
• calcitriol

raises blood pressure by causing vasoconstriction and secretion of aldosterone

• erythropoietin
• increases rate of red blood cell production

• active form of vitamin D
• absorption of dietary calcium and phosphorus

ANP

• atrial natriuretic peptide
• decreases blood pressure

leptin

supresses appetite and may increase the activity of FSH and LH

the conscious or subconscious awareness of changes in the external or internal conditions of the body

• stimulus
• sensory receptor
• conduction
• integration

change from the envirionment (external and internal)

must convey the stimulus to nerve impulse

impulse is conducted along some neural pathway and taken to the brain

the brain will integrate and will tell the body what is going on

conscious awareness and interpretation of the sensation

unique type of sensation such as touch pain and temperature and vision

• most sensory receptors can
• receptors will adapt to the sensation (stay in the pool long enough and you will adapt)

• general senses
• special senses

• somatic senses
• visceral senses

sensations from body walls

sensations from the gut and organs

• your 5 senses
• touch, taste, sight, vision, hearing

• structures of their secondary receptors
• type of stimulus they detect
• location of the receptors and the origin of the stimuli

• free nerve endings
• encapsulated nerve endings
• separate cells

• free nerve endings
• encapsulated nerve endings
• separate cells

these are receptors that respond to pain

• photoreceptors
• mechanoreceptors
• thermoreceptors
• osmoreceptors
• chemoreceptors
• nociceptors

• rapid--> quick adaptation, smell, touch, pressure
• slow--> body position

detect light

perceive or detect pressure, vibration, equilibrium, proprioception (awareness in body space)

• detect temperature
• free nerve endings
• cold and warm sensations are detected by seperate receptors
• initially rapid and then slow

osmotic pressure of the body

detect smell and taste

• detect damage to tissue
• slow

• exteroceptors
• interoceptors
• prprioceptors

• near the surface of the body
• mostly receive external stimuli, vision, hearing, tate, vibration, pressure

monitor internal environment not conscious receptors except for pain and touch

found in muscles and tendons, joints and inner ear, provide information about body position, muscle length, and tension, and the postion and movement of our joints

• type 1 cutaneous mechanoreceptor
• second level of sensitivity
• saucer shaped free nerve endings make contact with merkel cells in epidermis
• have to press down a little more 
• lots in finger tips and hands, lips and external genetalia
• fine touch
• slow

• first level of sensitivity
• only fires if it is painful touch
• found on skin and body surfaces

• type 3 level of sensitivity
• fine touch

• heavy of deep touch
• type 4 level of sensitivity
• pain and muscles and tendons
• type II cutanous mechanoreceptors
• elongated encapsulated receptors located deep in the dermis and in ligaments and tendons
• slow

• high frequency and pressure
• type 5 level of sensitivity
• oval layered capsule surrounds dendrites
• present in dermis and subcutaneous layer, submucosal tissues, joints, periosteum, and some viscera
• pressure, fast vibrations, and tickling
• rapid

touch

touching something and knowing you are contacting something

• gives ability to give specific information about what your are touching
• size
• shape
• helps define what you are touching

bare dendrites associated with pain, thermal, tickle, itch, and some touch sensations

dendrites enclosed in a connective tissue capsule for pressure, vibration, and some touch sensations

recceptor cell synapse with first order sensory neurons located in the retina of the eye, inner ear, and taste buds of the tongue

• 3rd in line for sensitivity
• fin touch receptors
• capsule surrounds mass of dendrites in dermal paillae of hairless skin
• rapid

• found near the skin
• rapidly adapting touch receptors found in hairy skin, consist of free nerve endings wrapped around hair follicles
• rapid

• skin or subcutaneous layer
• mucous membranes of the mouth, vagina, and anus
• muscles, tendons, and joints
• inner ear

found near the skin

• results from stimulation of free nerve endings
• stimulation usually by chemicals

mosquitos put chemicals in the skin during biting

• free nerve endings mediate tickle sensation
• arises when someone else is touching you
• we cant tickle ourselves because there is a part of the cerebellum that interprets that you are touching yourself and it inhibits your sensation

respond to temps between 50-105 degrees celcius

respond to temps between 90-118 degrees celcius

below 50 and above 118 degrees

• pain is needed for survival
• it serves a protection function by signaling the presence of noxious, tissue-damaging conditions

• fast
• slow
• superficial somatic
• deep somatic
• visceral

acute pain, not deep, like getting a shot

• begins slowly and increases in intensity 
• headache and toothache

rises from the skin

rises from joints muscles or tendons

comes from the organs

loose a limb and still feel the pain in that lost limb

• felt deep to the skin and underlying usually touches the organs
• ex: heart attack is felt in the left arm and shoulder

awareness of body sensations and movements

block the stimulation

inhibits the conduction of nerve impulses along pain fibers

lessens perception of pain in the brain

same thing as proprioception

applies to the distribution of weight that we use in certain body movements

• integrate intrafusal muscle fiber, when stimulated the motor fiber will contract
• maintains the sensitivity of the muscle spindle to stretching of the muscle

three to ten specialized muscle fibers partially enclosed in a spindle shaped connective tissue capsule that make up a muscle spindle

• ordinary skeletal muscle fibers
• regular skeletal muscle fibers when stimulated the fibers will get into type 1 and type 2 levles of receptors

• innervates extrafusal muscle fibers
• cell bodies of both gamma and alpha motor neurons are located in the anterior gray horn of the spinal cord

pass along ascending tracts in the spinal cord to the thalamus and from there to the somatosensory area of the cerebral cortex, proprioceptive impulses also pass along spinocerebellar tracts to the cerebellum

• jumping up and down
• not good for you

• 30 seconds to 2 minutes allows you to stretch within normal limits of range of motion 
• if you go beyond your normal limits of range of motion that stretching becomes balisctic

sustained sensation that is felt over a larger area than touch

• meissner corpuscles
• hair root plexuses

large oval structures composed of a multilayered connective tissue capsule that encloses a dendrite

results from rapidly repetative sensory signals from tactile receptors

• free nerve endings and lamellated corpuscles in skin and mucous membranes
• itching and tickling
• both slow and rapid

• sensory nerve endings wrap around central area of encapsulated intrafusal muscle fibers within most skeletal muscles
• muscle length
• slow

• capsule encloses collagen fibers and sensory nerve endings at junction of tendon and muscle
• muscle tension
• slow

• lamellated corpuscles
• type II cutaneous mechanoreceptors
• tendon organs
• and free nerve endings
• joint position and movement
• rapid

• discriminative touch
• proprioception
• weight discrimination
• vibration
• first order neurons--> stay on same side
• second order--> cross over and go into thalamus

pain and temperature

• itch
• tickle
• pressure
• vibrations
• crude and poorly localized touch sensations

• proprioceptors in the trunk in lower limb or one side of the body to the same side of the cerebellum
• informs cerebellum of actual movements allowing it to coordinate and refine skilled movements and maintain posture and balance

conveys immpulses from motor cortex of cerebrum to skeletal muscles on opposite side of body for precise voluntary movements of distal part of free limbs

conveys impulses from motor cortex to skeletal muscles on opposite side of the body for movements of trunk and proximal parts of free limbs

conveys impulses from motor cortex to skeletal muscle of head and neck to coordinate precise voluntary movements

conveys impulses from red nuclei to contralateral skeletal muscles that govern precise voluntary muscles of the distal parts of free upper limbs

conveys nerve impulses from the superior colliculus to contralateral skeletal muscles that reflexively move the head, eyes and trunk in response to visual or auditory stimuli

conveys nerve impulses from the vestibular nucleus to ipsilateral skeletal muscles of the trunk and proximal parts of the free limbs for maintaining posture and balance in response to head movements

conveys nerve impulses from reticular formation to ipsilateral skeletal muscles of the trunk and proximal parts of the free limbs for maintaining posture and regulating muscle tone in response to ongoing body movements