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Morphemes
•smallest units of meaning in a language
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Describing Morphemes: Bases
- •Form foundations of words
- •Establish basic meanings
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Kinds of Bases
Roots and Stems
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Roots
- •Serve as underlying foundation
- •Can’t be broken down any further
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Stems
- •Derived from roots
- •Can have additional affixes attached
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Describing Morphemes: Affixes
- •Attach to bases
- •Add grammatical information
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Kinds of Affixes
Prefixes, Suffixes, Infixes, Circumfixes, Reduplication, Interweaving, Portmanteau
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What Affixes DO
Derivation and Inflection
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Derivation
–Changing one kind of word into another
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Inflection
Showing relationships among words in a group
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Analyzing Arrangement: Free and Bound Morphemes
- -Free morphemes are like bases (stand alone)
- -Bound morphemes are like affixes (must be attached to other morphemes)
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Allomorphs
•Variant forms of a single morpheme
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Syntax
How words combine into phrases & sentences
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Ambiguities
Indicate alternative substitution frames
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Kinds of Grammars
Perspective, Descriptive, Generative
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Perspective Grammer
Provides a model of ‘proper’ speech
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Descriptive Grammer
Describes a language structure on its own terms
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Generative Grammer
Generates all possible sentences of a language
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Boas and Fieldwork
- -Language vs culture vs race
- -Language as window into culture
- -Language as necessary for fieldwork
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Phonetics
sound of language
*Acoustic, auditory, articulatory
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Acoustic
physical properties of sound, sound waves
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Auditory
perception of sounds, psychological “reality”
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Articulatory
- -pronunciation of sounds, articulation
- -also known as descriptive phonetics
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English Consonants are pronounced and can be described by three main components
- -Point of Articulation (Place in vocal tract where flow of air is modified)
- -Manner of Articulation (How flow of air is modified)
- -Voicing (Whether or not vocal chords are vibrating)
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Approximants
- -Sometimes called liquids & glides
- -Variously charted in different systems
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Vowels can also be understood by looking at three components
- -Tongue height
- -Tongue advancement
- -Lips rounded or unrounded
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phone
- -smallest identifiable unit of sound in a language
- -more easily identified by outsiders
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phoneme
- -smallest contrastive unit of sound in a language
- -heard as a single sound by insiders
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Phonetics
identify & describe sounds in detail (phones)
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Phonemics
- -analyze arrangements of sounds
- -identify groupings of sounds (phonemes)
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Variations
- -a phoneme can be a single sound/phone
- -or it can be a group of sounds/phones
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allophones of a phoneme
- -heard as ‘same sound’ by native speakers
- -usually ‘complementary’ to one another
- -because variation is usually ‘conditioned’ by neighboring sounds
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How many phonemes in a language?
- -From a few dozen to 100+
- -Vowels 8.7 (English 14)
- -Consonants 22.8 (24)
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