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percent of blood in veins
70%
-
what is significant about the pulmonary artery and vein?
- only artery that carries deoxygenated blood
- only vein that carries oxygenated blood
-
intercalated discs
- only in heart
- lie between each muscle cell
- provide stability
- allow rapid transmission of nerve impulse from one cell to another throughout the tissue
-
purkinje fibers
- control speed of transmission within cardiac muscle
- help coordinate muscle contraction
-
major transport medium of the body
blood
-
blood is what percent of body weight in cats and dogs?
9%
(7%-plasma 2%-corpuscles/cells)
-
blood's purpose
- carries nutrients, oxygen, and water to tissues
- moves waste products to the organs responsible for their elimination/excretion
- circulation of hormones&enzymes
- helps maintain body temp
-
plasma is slightly alkaline with a pH of approximately
7.4
90% water
-
constituents of plasma
- mineral salts (NaCl, calcium carbonate, potassium phosphate)
- plasma proteins (albumin, globulin, fibrinogen)
- dissolved gases (O2, CO2,Nitrogen)
- waste products (urea, creatinine)
- nutrients (glucose, amino acids)
varying levels of antibodies, hormones,& enzymes depending on the physiological status of the animal
-
RBC counted in the
millions
(5-7 million)
-
WBC counted in the
thousands
- dog: 11,000
- cat: 13,000
- horse: 9,000
-
in a bacterial infection WBC are
HIGH
(viral infection: WBC low)
-
the 7 diff types of cells in blood can be considered in these 3 groups
- erythrocytes (RBC)
- thrombocytes (platelets)
- leukocytes (WBC)
-
leukocytes further divided into
- granulocytes
- agranulocytes
-
granulocytes
- neutrophils
- basophils
- eosinophils
-
agranulocytes (absence of granules in cytoplasm)
-
red blood cells have no
nucleus
(so can carry more oxygen)
-
function of RBC
transport oxygen from lungs to tissues of the body and carry carbon dioxide back to lungs
-
hemoglobin allows
RBCs to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide
-
oxyhemoglobin
in the lungs, oxygen in the inspired air combines with hemoglobin in the erythrocyte form to form this compound
-
the efficiency of oxygen transport is directly dependent upon
the number of circulating erythrocytes and the amount of hemoglobin that each cell contains
-
RBC lifespan
then broken down primarily by spleen
-
main functions of spleen
- white pulp: destroys lymphocytes
- red pulp: produces lympophcytes
-
how can an animal still function without its spleen?
other sites also breakdown erythrocytes (liver, bone marrow)
-
iron from the breakdown process of erythrocytes is stored in the ? for re-use
liver
(remaining components converted into bile and excreted in feces)
-
smallest blood cells
thrombocytes
(non-nucleated)
-
thrombocytes primary function
assits with hemostasis (blood clotting)
-
largest cells, although less numerous
leukocytes (WBC)
-
scientific name for granulocytes
polymorphonuclear leukocytes
-
group of cells most numerous among leukocytes
granulocytes (the 3 phils)
approx 70% of WBC count
-
most numerous of the granulocytes
neutrophils
(difficult to stain; hence neutral)
-
granulocyte capable of diapedesis&accumulate rapidly where there is infection
neutrophil
(phagocytosis)
-
2-4% of total WBC population
eosinophils
-
these cells increase in response to parasite infection or allergy attack
esoinophils
-
least common of granulocytes
basophils
(1% of total WBC count)
-
basophils manufacture
histamine and heparin
(released at the site of injury to promote inflammation)
-
shock is
vasodilation and reduced cardiac output (low blood pressure)
-
20-30% of total WBC count
lymphocytes
-
lymphocytes produced in
lymph nodes and lymphatic tissue of spleen, liver, and other organs
-
2 types of lymphocytes
- B-lymphocytes (antibodies)
- T-lymphocytes
-
immune response based on the production of antibodies
humoral immunity
-
What do B-lymphocytes or B cells do?
When activated, they produce and secrete the specific antibody for the invading antigen.
(short-lived immunity)
-
2 types of active immunity
- humoral immunity/ B-cell immunity
- cellular immunity/ T-cell immunity
-
What do T-Lymphocytes or T cells do?
attack and destroy the invading cells directly
- (long-lived immunity)
- (primarily surface)
-
largest of leukocytes
monocytes
-
5-10% of total WBC count
monocytes
-
phagocytic, enter tissue at site of injury to engulf foreign objects that are too large for neutrophils
monocytes
-
promote inflammation
basophils
-
these 2 types of cells phagocytize
-
increase in # in response to parasite infection or allergy attack
eosinophils
-
monocytes have different names depending on where they are in the body:
- tissues: macrophages
- liver: kupfer cells
- CNS: histocytes
-
production of just blood cells
hemopoiesis
-
all the blood cells originate from one cell in the bone marrow with the exception of
lymphocytes that originate from lymph nodes, spleen, liver, etc.
-
production of RBC
erythropoiesis
(occurs in red bone marrow)
-
What is anemia?
Anemia is a reduction in the total RBC count&/or a reduction in the hemoglobin concentration.
-
what must be in RBC in order to carry oxygen or CO2?
hemoglobin
-
erythropoiesis requires
amino acids, vit C, B6, B12, iron, and folic acid
(if any are deficient in diet of the animal, symptoms of anemia may develop)
-
major hormone effecting erythropoiesis
erythropoietin
-
mammals have no nucleus in their RBC to
carry more Oxygen and CO2
(reptiles&avian do)
-
erythropoietin is produced in the
kidneys in response to a fall in the circulating levels of oxygen in the blood (hypoxia)
-
formation of thrombocytes
thrombopoiesis
occurs in bone marrow from large cells called megakaryocytes (precursors for thrombocytes)
-
thrombopoetin
peptide hormone secreted in the kidneys that controls the rate of thrombopoiesis by stimulating the production of megakaryocytes
-
leukopoiesis
production of leukocytes
occurs in bone marrow
-
what is the significance of progenitor cells?
they differentiate to produce all the different types of leukocytes except lymphocytes
-
*name the 4 common lymphoid tissues
- spleen
- thymus
- liver
- lymph nodes
-
lymphopoiesis (formation of lymphocytes) occurs primarily within the lymphoid tissues of the
- spleen
- thymus
- liver
- lymph nodes
-
in the immature animal, the thymus produces hormones known as
thymosins
- assist in maintaining the required number of T-lymphocytes
- in the adult, production is related to exposure to antigens
-
not usually found after maturation
thymus
(in immature animals bc thats when developing immune system)
-
hemostasis
the stopping of a flow of blood
-
initial response in hemostasis
localized constriction of smooth muscle surrounding vessel that slows, or may even stop blood flow at the damaged site
endothelial cells lining the vessels become 'sticky' and platelets adhere to their surface (platelet adhesion) forming "platelet plug" usually occurs within 15 sec
-
what type of memory do T-lymphocytes have? B?
- T-long memory (skin)
- B-short memory (distemper, rabies, corona virus)
-
vasoconstriction is brought on by which receptors?
alpha 1
-
*explain clotting (essay)
When thromboplastin enters the plasma, the enzyme thrombokinase is formed, which converts prothrombin into thrombin. Thrombin then converts the plasma protein fibrinogen into insoluble strands of fibrin which is sticky and traps thrombocytes forming the blood clot.
always in the blood: prothrombin, fibrinogen, thrombocytes
-
blood should clot within:
- dog/cat: 3-5 min
- horse: 5-15
-
average measurement of blood (mm)
17 mm of mercury
-
clear liquid at top of tube
- in purple tube: plasma
- in red tube: serum
-
both necessary for hemostasis
calcium ions and vitamin K
- Ca: formation of thromboplastin
- K: 4 clotting factors, including prothrombin
deficiency of either will impair clotting
-
fibrinolysis
process where the clot gradually dissolves as the wound heals
the fibrin that formed the clot is broken down by the enzyme plasmin or fibrinase produced by plasminogen, the inactive form that circulates within the plasma and body fluids.
-
DEA
Dog Erythrocyte Antigen
or Canine Erythrocyte Antigens
8 types
-
8 types of canine blood groups
- DEA-1 (A1)
- DEA-2 (A2)
- DEA-3 (B)
- DEA-4 (C)
- DEA-5 (D)
- DEA-6 (F)
- DEA-7 (Tr)
- DEA-8 (He)
-
most common canine blood group
DEA 4&6 (98%)
-
least common canine blood group
DEA-3 (B)
-
most reactive canine blood group
DEA 1 and 2
-
random transfusions should be avoided bc:
- risk sensitization&subsequent severe transfusion reactions (must give their blood type next time)
- transfused RBCs will have shortened life
-
2 ways of transfusion
- through the vein (preferred)
- intraperitoneal (50% die, other 50% shortened lifespan)
-
most common feline blood type (also most dangerous)
A
-
feline blood types of more importance bc
- existence of strong preformed isoantibodies
- no universal donor in cats
(type B cats receiving A may have fatal reaction after only 1 mL of incompatible blood. type A receiving B milder reaction)
-
universal feline recipient
Type AB
-
quickest way to loose fluid (hypovolemia)
- diarrhea (loosing sodium)
- vomitting (loosing chlorine)
(give normal saline bc has sodium&chloride in it)
-
how many lbs in a kg?
2.2 lbs in 1 kg
-
formula of how much blood to give
Vol= %increase X weight of animal X 1.7=mL
- Ex: 5 kg cat with PCV 14% (want 20%)
- 6% X 5 X 1.7= 51.0 mL of blood
-
standard rate of admin (cat)
10mL/Kg/Hr
hypovolemic cat- 60mL/Kg/Hr
-
capillary beds
where the exchange of nutrients, oxygen, and carbon dioxide occurs
-
layers of the heart from inside, out
- endocardium
- myocardium
- epicardium
- pericardial cavity
- serous pericardium
- parietal pericardium
-
Lub
AV valves close as ventricles contract
-
Dub
semi-lunar valves close as pulmonary artery and aorta contract
-
major artery that supplies the body with blood
aorta
-
which ventricle pumps blood to the lungs?
right
in the lungs, exchange of oxygen and CO2 occurs and oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium before being pumped around the body
-
why is the right ventricle wall thinner?
force of contraction required to pump blood the shorter distance to the lungs (pulmonary circulation) is less than that needed to get all around the body (left ventricle leads to aorta-major artery supplying body)
-
systole vs diastole
systole- contracting
diastole- relaxing/filling
-
AV valves closed
- atria filling (D)
- AV valves closed
- ventricles contracting (S)
- semilunar valves open
- pulmonary artery&aorta filling (D)
-
two parts of circulation
- pulmonary circulation (to lungs) Right
- systemic circulation (to body) Left
-
BP top/bottom
- top- systolic pressure
- bottom- diastolic pressure
120/80
-
pulmonary circulation
deoxygenated blood pumped from R side of heart to lungs in the pulmonary arteries. blood is oxygenated at the lungs before being returned to the heart in the pulmonary vein.
-
exceptions to artery/vein rule
- pulmonary artery&vein
- umbilical artery
-
systemic circulation
blood from L side of heart to the body tissues, via arteries and capillaries where it becomes deoxygenated before returning to the R side of the heart in veins.
-
cardiac muscle
- contact between cells via intercalated discs allows cells to contract simultaneously (heart appears to act like one large muscle)
- does not fatigue following repeated contractions
- rhythmic contraction without any nerve supply (automaticity)
-
heart failure R vs L
R- tricuspid problem due to heartworms (blood backs up into liver)
L- mitral valve insufficiency (blood backs up into lungs "pulmonary edema")
-
How to know if in R/L ventricle?
- R- thinner wall
- restrictor bands
L- thicker wall
-
dilated heart could be from
- overworked
- heartworms
- (anything that really works the heart)
-
function of heart valves
preventing blood flowing in the wrong direction as the heart chambers contract
-
atrio-ventricular valves
- mitral valve
- tricuspid vale
function: prevent blood flowing back into the atria as ventricles contract
-
papillary muscles
attach to the chordae tendinae, contract and prevent the cusps of the valves being pushed back into the atria
-
semi-lunar/arterial valves
- pulmonary valve
- aortic valve
function: prevent flow of blood into the ventricles following systole
-
congenital defects (valves)
- present at birth
- something happened between conception and birth to cause this
- pulmonic stenosis
- aortic stenosis (narrowing in valvular region)
-
acquired valvular defects
develop with age
valve incompetence or valvular insufficiency-cusps of valves thicken and loose their elasticity causing valve to leak
-
most common valve disease
mitral valve disease
usually first evident- general slowing down during exercise accompanied by breathlessness
start to cough, if left untreated will progress into heart failure, as the heart is unable to pump sufficient blood around the body
blood accumulates in the left atrium and may flow back into the lungs, causing pulmonary congestion, leads to pulmonary edema and dyspnea
-
*Renin-Angiotensin System
- Blood goes through kidneys, kidneys measure
- BP drops below certain pressure, detected by Juxtaglomerular cell which in response releases Renin
- Renin takes Angiotensinogen and converts it to Angiotensin I
- Angiotensin I converted to Angiotensin II by Angiotensin Conversion Enzyme (ACE)
- Angiotensin II goes to the adrenal gland and causes the outer layer (zona glomerulosa) to release Aldosterone
- Aldosterone goes to kidney to cause absorption of Na
- So goes Sodium, so goes water: as Na is absorbed, water comes with it increasing the volume of blood thereby raising BP
Once BP increased, circulates (60 sec) to kidney, where it is measured, once normal, kidney will stop releasing Renin (negative feedback)
-
maintain blood pressure through the
renin-angiotensin system
-
treatment of mitral valve disease
Enacard- ACE inhibitor. functions by blocking the conversion of Angiotensin I to Angiotensin II
-
Angiotensinogen produced by the
liver
(always in blood)
-
non-propietary
generic name
-
tricuspid disease
- right side heart failure due to dirofilaria immitis
- blood backs up in the vena cava (hyperemia) resulting in blood hyperstasis in the liver with liver failure and ascites in the latter stages
-
most common heart disease that affects great danes
dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM)
-
dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM)
- muscular wall of the heart becomes thin and lose ability to contract effectively
- etiology unknown
- more common in large breeds
-
myocardial infarction (heart attack in humans)
- does not occur frequently in animals
- acute myocardial ischemia (blockage) is often secondary to other cardiac diseases, such as aortic stenosis, endocarditis, cardiomyopathy, or neoplasia
blood not getting to cardiac muscle which begins to die
-
endocarditis
- bacterial infection of endocardium
- usually involving a valve
- in dogs, most common affected valve-mitral
-
systole
- contraction
- depolarization
-
-
-
-
2 phases of ECG of contraction and relaxation
- contraction- depolarization
- relaxation- repolarization
-
hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
- most common heart disease of cats
- disease of the myocardium
- left ventricular walls become thickened (hypertrophied) while the left ventricular chamber decreases in size
- clots form and break loose lodging in the iliac arteries with hind limb paresis
-
stimulate vagus nerve
slow everything down bc parasympathetic nerve
-
the medulla receives feedback from
- baroreceptors/pressoreceptors- measure pressure
- chemoreceptors- measure chemical composition of the blood
-
should there be a fall in BP or circulating levels of Oxygen, or an increase in circulating levels of CO2..
the cardiac center stimulates the heart to increase its output
this leads to an increase in BP and Oxygen content of the blood, with a corresponding decrease in the circulating levels of CO2
-
electrocardiogram
- measures the electrical activity of the heart
- assessment of hearts ability to conduct impulses
-
function of glossopharyngeal
connects carotid sinus to respiratory and cardiovascular centers of the hindbrain
-
Heartbeat and Conduction
- initial stimulus- spontaneously in SA node(located in right atrium)
- wave of depolarization spreads across L&R atria as they contract, emptying their contents into ventricles
- upon reaching AV node(located in septum) wave of depolarization travels along bundle of his, spreading along purkinjie fibers
- ventricles contract, pumping blood into pulmonary artery&aorta to circulate to the pulmonary&systemic circuits
- sympathetic¶sympathetic can modify heartbeat (frequency&force of contraction)
- central area of control in medulla oblongata-receives/processes information from parasympathetic/sympathetic areas of hypothalamus
medulla receives feedback from baroreceptors&chemoreceptors-telling heart to either increase/decrease cardiac output
-
vasoconstriction vs. vasodilation
- constriction- heart beat up
- respirations up
- BP up
- dilation- heart beat down
- respirations down
- BP down
-
too much CO2/ O2
- CO2- increase respiration to balance it out
- O2- we will cause vasodilation&reduced cardiac output
-
horses have reversed
QRS complex
-
"double P"
common heart murmur in thoroughbred horses
-
period between beginning of P wave and beginning of QRS complex
PR interval- indicates how long it takes the impulse to travel through the AV node
-
AV or 1st degree heart block
impulse takes too long to get through and never reaches the ventricles
(PR interval will be increased)
-
P wave is too tall can indicate:
right atrial enlargement (p-pulmonale)
-
P wave is too wide can indicate:
left atrial enlargement (p-mitale)
-
tall R wave or widened QRS complex may suggest:
left ventricular enlargement
-
deep S wave may suggest:
right ventricular enlargement
-
no P waves=
massive block
-
P-wave represents
depolarization
and subsequent contraction of the atria
-
P-wave is followed by the
QRS complex
(as the action potential is spread down the bundle of his to the purkinje fibers and the ventricles depolarize and contract)
-
T-wave
repolarization
(recovery of ventricles prior to the commencement of another heartbeat)
-
QRS Complex
depolarization of ventricles
-
arrhythmias
rhythms too slow or too fast
- heart rate too slow-heart cannot pump adequate amount of blood to meet body's needs
- heart rate too fast-heart cannot fill with blood adequately and pumping function of the heart will be abnormal
-
slow heart rate
bradyarrhythmia
-
fast heart rate
tachyarrhythmia
-
-
what animal has a sinus arrhythmia?
dog
(inhale-heart slows down, exhale-heart speeds up)
-
disturbances in the heartrate
dysrhythmias
-
contained within the tissue, site of all chemical and gaseous exchange between interstitial fluid and blood
capillaries
-
tunica adventitia
- outer layer of arteries/veins
- formed from collagen and elastic fibers
- protects the vessel
-
tunica media
- middle layer of arteries/veins
- contains smooth muscle&elastic fibers
- innervated by sympathetic, can contract or relax to control amount of blood flowing through vessel
-
tunia intima
- inner layer of arteries/veins
- single layer elastic fiber&flattened endothelial cells
- smooth surface for circulation
-
blood pressure range
79-97
-
wall is thicker but actual opening is smaller
arteries
-
smooth muscle of arterial wall innervated by sympathetic, when stimulated, contraction of the muscle causes
vasoconstriction
conversely, when the smooth muscle relaxes causes vasodilation
-
brachiocepahlic trunk branches into
- left and right common carotid arteries &
- right subclavian artery
-
supplies the fore limbs
left and right subclavian arteries
-
form the jugular groove
- sternocephalicus
- brachiocephalicus
-
tunica media thinner in
veins
(have less elastic fibers, therefore, less stretchability than arteries)
-
advantages of using vein vs artery
- more accessible
- thinner walls
- consequences of damaging less severe (damage to artery may compromise blood supply to several tissues/organs)
- less chance of hematoma bc not under pressure like arteries
-
major veins that return blood to the heart
cranial and caudal vena cavae
-
drains blood from intercostal spaces of thorax and thoracic wall
azygous vein
-
hepatic portal vein
carries absorbed products of digestion from intestine to the liver for detoxification
-
smallest of blood vessels and form network between arterial and venous systems
capillaries
-
formed from single layer of flattened epithelial cells (no tunica media or tunica externa)
cappillaries
-
pre-capillary sphincters of smooth muscle
- surround beginning of each capillary
- contract or relax to decrease/increase the flow of blood through the capillary as needed
-
the heart is innervated by the
autonomic nervous system
-
activity in the parasympathetic division, primarily the vagus nerve (X) causes the heart to
SLOW, in addition to decreasing the force of contraction.
this combined effect reduces cardiac output
-
sympathetic division causes
increased heart rate, accompanied by an increased force of contraction.
this increases the cardiac output
-
bruised vagus nerve
causes stimulation to vagus (parasympathetic) so slows heart down
(dog kicked in neck=40 BPM)
-
cardiac output
volume of blood pumped by the heart in a given time (60 sec)
-
cardiac output formula
cardiac output= stroke vol X heart rate
Ex: 10 mL X 180 BPM= 1800 mL/minute
-
stroke volume out of which ventricle?
Left
-
define blood pressure
force that the blood exerts upon the blood vessels
(greatest in the aorta-starts high in aorta and decreases to low as the blood finally enters the heart at the right auricle)
-
systolic pressure coincides with
ventricular contraction
-
diastolic pressure coincides with
ventricular relaxation
-
increase heart rate, stroke volume
decreases
-
alpha 1 receptors
vasoconstriction
-
beta 1 receptors
cause increase in metabolism of cells causing an increase in heart rate and force of contraction
-
beta 2 receptors
bronchodilation=ease of respiration
-
sites for pulse in dog and cat
- femoral
- cranial tibial
- brachial (bird)
- ulnar/carpal artery
- coccygeal (cow)
- carotid
- sub-lingual (pigs)
-
within medulla oblongata are 2 vital centers, cardiac&vasomotor center, together:
cardiovascular centers
- cardiac center: 2 regions
- one causes acceleration of heart rate via sympathetic, one causes deceleration via parasympathetic
- vasomotor: 2 regions
- one causes vasoconstriction
- one causes vasodilation
-
within medulla oblongata
- Cardiovascular Centers
- 1. cardiac center- 2 regions
- a)accelerate heart via sympathetic
- b) decelerate heart via parasympathetic
- 2. vasomotor center (control vessel width)
- a)vasoconstriction
- b)vasodilation
- *all based on pressure, O2, or CO2
- (pressure or chemical content of arterial blood)
-
vasomotor center
- baroreceptors located in carotid sinus and aortic sinus detect the degree of stretch of the vessel wall.
- gives feedback about level of BP, allowing cardiac output and peripheral resistance to be adjusted accordingly
-
chemoreceptors
detect O2 or CO2 concentration (chemical content of the blood)
-
analeptic
makes aortic arch and carotid sinus receptors more sensitive to CO2 concentrations (will make the animal breathe)
Ex: Doxapram (non-propietary)
-
chemoreceptors located in the
carotid and aortic bodies
-
angiotensinogen is an inactive plasma protein produced by the
liver
-
renin secreted by the
kidney
-
angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) secreted by the
lungs
-
4 major effects of angiotensin II
- stimulates secretion of Aldosterone *water retention&we can control easily*
- stimulates secretion of antidiuretic hormone (increases water retention by kidneys)
- stimulates thirst
- vasoconstrictor (reducing blood flow to periphery to ensure blood flow to vital organs)
-
give to slow heart down
digitalis
-
takes fluids out of tissues
diuretics
-
shock is
vasodilation and reduced cardiac output.
-
loss of circulating blood %
- less than 10%- few signs
- 25%- tachycardia, mild-moderate hypotension
- 40% or greater- severe hypotension, may not recover if treatment not carried out w/in 2 hrs
-
circulatory shock usually occurs in response to
severe hemorrhage, such as that caused by injury during a hit by car, ruptured splenic tumor, other internal bleeding or severe burns
-
most common type of shock
hypovolemic (decreased vol of circulating blood in the body)
-
some signs of shock
- pale mucous membranes with slow CRT
- extremities cold to the touch
- low BP
- increased heart rate with a rapid weak pulse
- may appear depressed
-
3 phases of shock
- compensatory shock
- progressive shock
- irreversible shock
-
compensatory shock
all arterioles except coronary and cerebral vessels constrict to maintain arterial pressure and adequate circulation
- B1- heart faster&stronger
- B2- dilate coronary&cerebral vessels while dilating bronchioles
- A1-constrict peripheral vessels of skin&intestines
-
progressive shock
heart cannot pump enough blood for adequate coronary circulation resulting in decreased cardiac output. lack of blood to the brain damages respiratory center causing vasodilation and the shock cycle continues
-
irreversible shock
- treatment at this point is of no value bc heart damage is irreparable
- capillaries become too permeable and death results within short time
-
pulse oximeter
SPO2 (measurement of oxygen attached to hemoglobin) and pulse
- normal SPO2= 95
- pulse 60-120
-
blood pressure monitor
blood pressure (79-97 mm Hg)
-
if catch shock at progressive phase:
- indwelling catheter in vein
- lactated ringers
- animal on heating pad
- elevate feet-blood flow w/ gravity back to heart
- give soludelta cortef or dexamethasone phosphate to conceal dilating vessels and allow to contsrict&stop anymore loss of plasma
-
crystalloid fluids (water like)
administered to restore circulating blood vol.
- normal saline (0.9%)
- lactated ringers
- hartmann's solution
- dextrose, etc
longer shelf life
-
colloid solution (syrup like)
beneficial to administer before crystalloids to reduce amount of crystalloids needed
- remain in circulatory system longer
- short shelf life
- expensive
-
milder cases of shock
- IV fluid replacement may not be necessary
- oral fluids containing electrolytes
-
angio-neurotic edema
swollen muzzle from allergic reaction to vaccine
treat with soludelta cortef (swelling down so can breathe again)
(leptospirosis- not a virus; bacterin=bacteria will cause shock reaction)
-
shock cycle
- cause of shock
- histamine release
- vasodilation of capillaries
- increased capillary permeability
- blood plasma moves from blood into tissue
- decrease blood vol&pressure
- reduce blood flow
- histamine release
- vasodilation to reduce friction on blood flow
- etc...
-
name 4 lymphoid tissues
- lymph nodes
- spleen
- thymus
- liver
-
function of lymphatics
- trash away from body
- protect body (antibodies)
drains tissue fluid (lymph)
-
lymph nodes
- filter out infections (when does they swell up)
- defense against infection by harboring lymphocytes, plasma cells, and macrophages
-
lymph node is divided into 3 parts (outside-in)
- cortex (produces B-lymphocytes)
- paracortex (produces T-lymphocytes)
- medulla (accumulation of plasma cells)
-
make up the immune system
- B-lymphocytes
- T-lymphocytes
- plasma cells
-
lymph is delivered by
afferent lymph vessels entering the subscapular sinus and is filtered through the cortex, paracortex, and medulla, to emerge finally at the hilus, then efferent lymphatic vessels emerge and carry the lymph out
-
spleen
- located on left side
- lymphoid organ associated with circulatory system
- attached to the stomach by gastrosplenic ligament
- one of primary producers of lymphocytes
-
spleen's make-up
- parenchyma (tissue cells) of spleen:
- red pulp- engorged w RBC at the end of their life
- white pulp-B&T lymphocytes in abundance
-
-
spleen function
- immunologic functions
- storage area for RBC
- worn-out RBC iron is stored here
not essential organ, its functions can be carried out by other organs but will be susceptible to parasite blood cell infections
-
organ of immature animals
thymus
-
thymus
where T&B lymphocytes go to get specific duties
-
tonsils
- 6 total: 3 on each side
- lack afferent lymphatic vessels, relying on their proximity to the epithelial surface to make contact with antigens
-
job of respiratory system
O2 to tissues and CO2 away from tissues
-
external respiration
inspiration and the diffusion of oxygen from the air sacs (alveoli of lungs) into the blood and CO2 from the blood into the air sacs
-
internal respiration
diffusion of gases between the blood and tissues of the body
-
anemia
reduction in number of erythrocytes and/or reduction of hemoglobin
-
hemoglobin
- what oxygen attaches to
- made of heme- iron (yellow) and globin-protein
HgG =12.5 g/mL
-
ratio of O2 to CO2
- inspired air: 500/1
- expired air: 4/1
-
trachea splits into
bronchi>bronchioles>alveoli
-
alar fold
- bulbous enlargement that attaches to the wing of the nostril
- functions to cause turbulence of air entering the nasal chamber to ensure the air is warmed, moistened, and filtered prior to entering the rest of the respiratory tract
-
turbinates
- highly vascular (to warm air as it comes in)
- lined with ciliated (to grab particles) mucous epithelial tissue to increase the surface area
-
pharynx considered in 3 regions
- nasopharynx
- oropharynx
- laryngopharynx
-
nasopharyngeal region
- continuous from nasal chambers
- lined with ciliated
- eustachian tube from middle ear opens up here, to permit equilibration of the pressure on either side of tympanic membrane
- separated from rest of the pharynx by the soft palate
-
oropharynx
- below soft palate
- contains folds of lymphoid tissue known as tonsils
- lined with striated epithelial tissue to resist friction caused during swallowing
-
laryngopharynx
forms caudal part of pharynx and leads to larynx
-
larynx
- cranial end of trachea
- composed of muscle&fibrocartilage
- vocalization
-
make up what we commonly refer to as the larynx
- thyroid cartilage
- arytenoid cartilage
- cricoid cartilage
- epiglottis
-
extreme red color of mucous membranes
hyperemia
-
trachea rings made of what type of cartilage?
hyaline cartilage
(space in rings lie at the points where the esophagus expands during swallowing!)
-
carina
ridge that marks the point of division of the trachea into bronchi
-
bronchodilation
- caused by increased activity in sympathetic
- increases amount of air available
- preparing animal for "fight-or-flight"
-
bronchoconstriction
- result of activity in parasympathetic
- reduces diameter of airways
- may occur in allergic reactions
-
septal cells
- secrete surfactant
- covers entire alveolar surface and reduces surface tension, preventing their collapse
-
left lung has how many lobes? right?
-
pulmonary pleura/visceral pleura
serous membranes that covers the lungs
-
parietal pleura
serous membranes that line the thoracic cavity
-
pleural fluid
thin, watery, fluid acts as lubricant preventing friction between membranes as lungs inflate/deflate
-
2 processes of respiration
- inspiration (inhalation)
- expiration (exhalation)
*1 inspiration&1expiration=1 respiration
-
most common sign noted in depth of anesthesia
respiration
-
during inspiration the diaphragm is
- flat (pulling air in flattens it out)
- muscle of diaphragm are contracting
- increases length&vol of thoracic cavity
-
during expiration the diaphragm is
- domed (dome pushing air up&out)
- muscle of diaphragm are relaxing (dome is resting shape of diaphragm)
- decreases vol of thorax
-
spirometer
measures volume of air held in the lungs during the respiratory process
-
tidal volume (TV)
vol of air breathed in or out during respiration at rest
-
vital capacity (VC)
- ERV+IRV+TV
- maximum vol of air that can be inhaled and exhaled
-
expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
total vol of air that can be voluntarily expired following normal breathing
-
residual volume (RV)
vol of air remaining in lungs following maximum exhalation
-
inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
vol of air that can be inhaled, above the tidal volume
-
inspiratory capacity
- TR+IRV
- vol of air that can be inhaled following quiet respiration
-
functional residual capacity (FRC)
- ERV+RV
- vol of air in lungs after completion of a cycle of quiet respiration
-
total lung capacity
- VC+RV
- total vol of the lungs
-
pneumothorax
- air in pleural cavity
- results in lungs unable to inflate
-
pyothorax
- pus in pleural cavity
- hemothorax
- prevent expansion of lungs during inspiration
-
ruptured diaphragm
prevent lung inflation as diaphragm will be unable to flatten to increase vol of thoracic cavity
(most common hernia with exception of umbilical hernia)
-
pulmonary congestion/edema
- associated with heart disease (frequently enlarged heart)
- can also effect functioning of lungs
-
males&larger animals have ______ respirations
lower
-
dog respirations conscious vs gen. anesthesia
- conscious: 10-30
- anesthesia: 12-16
-
cat respirations conscious vs gen. anesthesia
- conscious: 20-30
- anesthesia: 12-16
-
Hering-Breuer reflex
- respiratory reflex
- stretch receptors inhibit inspiration when lungs stretched and stimulate inspiration when deflated
(sitting on couch and take a deep breath out of nowhere)
-
baroreceptors/pressorreceptors
- in carotid sinus&aortic arch
- monitor degree of stretch of vessels as indicator of BP
-
pH detected by specialized receptors called
- chemoreceptors
- central chemoreceptors- on surface of medulla
- peripheral-in aortic arch&carotid sinus
- stimulated by lowering of pH/fall in oxygen
- results in increase in rate&depth of respiration to eliminate excess CO2
-
suffocation
- rising levels of dissolved CO2
- by-product; ketones >acidosis
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